Fig. 1 SEM images of the Ti powder: a, b before, c, d after 7 h of ball milling

Fig. 2 SEM images of the distribution of TiAl3 intermetallic particles after a one, b three, c five cycles of ARB procedure in the samples manufactured using cold roll bonding, annealing at 590 ℃ for 2 h, and ARB process (CRB-AT-ARB samples)

Fig. 3 SEM images exhibiting the distribution of TiAl3 intermetallic compounds in samples manufactured using cold roll bonding, annealing at 590 ℃ for 2 h, and ARB process for a 1, b 3, c 5 cycles

Fig. 4 SEM images displaying the distribution of TiAl3 intermetallic particles in a CRB-AT-ARB5, b CRB-ARB5-AT

Fig. 5 TEM images of CRB-AT-ARB1 at different magnifications a-c, the relevant SAD pattern d

Fig. 6 TEM images of CRB-AT-ARB3 at different magnifications a, b, the relevant SAD pattern c (black and white arrows showing the geometrically necessary boundaries and intermetallic particles, respectively)

Fig. 7 TEM images of different areas of the CRB-AT-ARB5 sample with different magnifications a-e, the resulting SAD pattern f

Fig. 8 a Elemental analysis, b elemental composition of the particles indicated in Fig. 7e

Fig. 9 a,b TEM images of two different areas of the CRB-ARB5-AT sample (white and black arrows showing the rolling direction and TiAl3 intermetallic particles, respectively)

Fig. 10 XRD patterns of a initial Al, b CRB, c CRB-AT, d CRB-AT-ARB5, e CRB-ARB5-AT samples

Fig. 11 Engineering stress-strain curves of a initial Al, CRB, and CRB-AT, b CRB-AT-ARB samples after 1 to 5 ARB cycles

Fig. 12 Engineering stress-strain curves of a initial Al and CRB, b CRB-ARB1-AT, CRB-ARB3-AT, and CRB-ARB5-AT samples

Fig. 13 SEM images of a CRB-AT-ARB1 (black arrows showing the interface discontinuities of Al layers), b ARB-AT-ARB5 samples after FIB milling

Fig. 14 SEM images of CRB-ARB5-AT sample after FIB milling

Fig. 15 Changes in the hardness of the Al matrix in the initial Al and CRB, and CRB-AT and CRB-AT-ARB samples after different ARB cycles

Fig. 16 Variations in the hardness of the Al matrix in the initial Al, and CRB-ARB, and CRB-ARB-AT specimens after the first, third, and fifth cycles of the ARB process

Fig. 17 TEM images exhibiting the formation of Orowan loops in different areas a-c of the CRB-AT-ARB4 sample