Metals Advances ›› 2026, Vol. 42: 1-22.DOI: 10.1016/j.metadv.2026.03.001
Peixin Yanga,b, Haijun Sua,b,*(
), Yinuo Guoa,b, Zhonglin Shena, Xin Haoa, Quandong Hua, Yihe Zhanga, Min Guoa, Min Yanga, Wenchao Yanga
Received:2025-11-20
Revised:2026-01-26
Accepted:2026-02-23
Online:2026-04-10
Published:2026-03-13
Contact:
State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China. E-mail address: Peixin Yang, Haijun Su, Yinuo Guo, Zhonglin Shen, Xin Hao, Quandong Hu, Yihe Zhang, Min Guo, Min Yang, Wenchao Yang. Advances in laser powder bed fusion of ceramic-reinforced superalloys: Processing, microstructure, properties, and perspectives[J]. Metals Advances, 2026, 42: 1-22.
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| Materials | Density (g cm-3) | Melting point (°C) | Coefficient of thermal expansion (×106 °C-1) | Modulus of elasticity (GPa) | Hardness (HV) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TiC [ | 4.99 | 3140 | 7.95 | 460 | 2859-3200 |
| B4C [ | 2.52 | 2350 | 5.73 | 420-460 | 2800-3400 |
| WC [ | 15.50 | 2870 | 3.90 | 731 | 2000-3000 |
| SiC [ | 3.21 | 2700 | 5.40 | 480 | 2600-3000 |
| TiB2 [ | 4.52 | 2390 | 4.60 | 520-550 | 2100-2600 |
| ZrB2 [ | 6.10 | 3040 | 5.90 | 480-495 | 2200-2600 |
| ZrO2 [ | 5.89 | 2680 | 12.01 | 132 | 1200-1300 |
| Al2O3 [ | 3.97 | 2054 | 6.80 | 379 | 1800-2200 |
| Y2O3 [ | 5.03 | 2439 | 8.60 | 179 | 1300-1400 |
Table 1. Physical properties of ceramic particles.
| Materials | Density (g cm-3) | Melting point (°C) | Coefficient of thermal expansion (×106 °C-1) | Modulus of elasticity (GPa) | Hardness (HV) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TiC [ | 4.99 | 3140 | 7.95 | 460 | 2859-3200 |
| B4C [ | 2.52 | 2350 | 5.73 | 420-460 | 2800-3400 |
| WC [ | 15.50 | 2870 | 3.90 | 731 | 2000-3000 |
| SiC [ | 3.21 | 2700 | 5.40 | 480 | 2600-3000 |
| TiB2 [ | 4.52 | 2390 | 4.60 | 520-550 | 2100-2600 |
| ZrB2 [ | 6.10 | 3040 | 5.90 | 480-495 | 2200-2600 |
| ZrO2 [ | 5.89 | 2680 | 12.01 | 132 | 1200-1300 |
| Al2O3 [ | 3.97 | 2054 | 6.80 | 379 | 1800-2200 |
| Y2O3 [ | 5.03 | 2439 | 8.60 | 179 | 1300-1400 |
| Preparation method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Ball milling | Simple operation, low cost, scalable, compatible with various ceramics. | Damages powder sphericity; prone to oxidation/agglomeration at high ceramic content. |
| High-speed mixing | High efficiency, preserves sphericity. | Narrow parameter windows; poor for ultra-fine particles. |
| Mechanical stirring | Atomic-level dispersion, tight interfacial bonding; preserves sphericity. | Long processing time, high energy consumption; cumbersome for large-scale production. |
Table 2. Comparison of preparation methods for ceramic-reinforced superalloys.
| Preparation method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| Ball milling | Simple operation, low cost, scalable, compatible with various ceramics. | Damages powder sphericity; prone to oxidation/agglomeration at high ceramic content. |
| High-speed mixing | High efficiency, preserves sphericity. | Narrow parameter windows; poor for ultra-fine particles. |
| Mechanical stirring | Atomic-level dispersion, tight interfacial bonding; preserves sphericity. | Long processing time, high energy consumption; cumbersome for large-scale production. |
Fig. 1. Preparation methods (a-c) and morphologies (a1-c1) of composite powders. (a) Ball milling method, with (a1) showing Mar-247 powder and Mar-247-1 wt% Y2O3 powder [31]; (b) High-speed mixing method, with (b1) showing HX powder and HX-2 wt% TiB2 powder [33]; (c) combination of ultrasonic vibration and mechanical stirring, with (c1) showing IN738LC powder and IN738LC-2 wt% TiC powder [34].
Fig. 2. Metallurgical process of LPBF (a) [35] with the Marangoni effect (b) [40]. (c) Schematic of LPBF process for GH5188 and GH5188-TiN composite [26].
Fig. 3. (a) Coefficient of thermal expansion vs temperature curve of IN718 and YSZ/IN718 FGC tested along the building direction. (b) Coefficient of thermal expansion vs temperature curve of IN718 and YSZ/IN718 composites tested perpendicular to building direction [43].
Fig. 4. (a) EBSD characterization revealing grain refinement in as-deposited IN718 and IN718-1 wt% Y2O3 fabricated by LPBF [45]. (b) Gradient interface of IN718-WC1-x composites [48]. (c) Evolution behavior of gradient interface [49]. (d) Comparative analysis between the as-built IN718 and IN718-1 wt% Ti2AlC (IN718-MC) [46], [47]. (e) Composite structures of Ni-Cr-Al-Ti-0.5 wt% Y2O3 with Y-O and Y-Ni rich phases are intermixed [50].
Fig. 5. Microstructure and precipitation phases of as-deposited ceramic-reinforced superalloy composites fabricated by LPBF: (a) HX superalloy and HX-3 wt% TiC [32], (b) IN718 and IN718-1 wt% Y2O3 [31], (c) IN718-1 wt% Y2O3-FeO and IN718-1 wt% Y2O3-FeO-Hf [53].
Fig. 6. Scheil solidification curves (a, b) and concentration profiles of elements in the liquid (c, d) of specimens showing the difference between solidification patterns between IN939 and IN939 with TiB2: (a, c) IN939, (b, d) IN939 with TiB2 [54].
Fig. 7. Superalloy components (a, c) and composite components (d-f) formed by LPBF. (a) A Cellcore prototype rocket nozzle featuring internal cooling channels of IN718 [55]. (b) A nickel-based superalloy turbine nozzle [22]. (c) A nTopology and AFIT lattice CubeSat bus structure of IN718 [55]. (d) A spinning blade of IN718 with TiC [22]. (e) Complex radiator blades of IN718 with CrFeNb composites [5]. (f) Triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structure of IN718 with TiCN composite [56].
Fig. 8. Pore defects of ceramic-reinforced superalloy composites fabricated by LPBF: (a) HX with 2 wt% TiB2 [33], (b) IN718 with 10 vol.% TiC [58], (c) HX with 1 wt% and 3 wt% TiC [37], (d) Ni-Cr-Al-Ti superalloy with 0.5 wt% Y2O3 [50].
Fig. 9. Cracks observed in superalloy composites during LPBF process: (a) solidification cracks of RENÉ 108 superalloy [59], (b) liquefaction cracks of IN718 superalloy [60] and (c) hot cracks of B4C reinforced IN718 superalloy [61].
Fig. 10. Reinforcement clusters and their formation mechanism in HX-3 wt% TiC composite during the LPBF process: (a) reinforcement clusters, (b) formation mechanism of the clusters [37].
| Superalloy | Ceramic type | Condition | Temperature | Yield strength (MPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Elongation (%) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 646.5 | 940.1 | 35.5 | [ |
| HT | 1211.3 | 1408.5 | 14.8 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiC | As | 774.3 | 1029.0 | 12.3 | |||
| HT | 1144.0 | 1380.9 | 9.1 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 692.2 | 950.8 | 31.4 | [ |
| 0.5 wt% WC | 734.1 | 1017.2 | 30.4 | ||||
| 2.0 wt% WC | 891.3 | 1201.9 | 26.8 | ||||
| 4.0 wt% WC | 723.8 | 1002.3 | 27.5 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 826.0 | 1095.0 | 30.3 | [ |
| HT | 1264.0 | 1398.0 | 16.1 | ||||
| 2 wt% SiC | As | 963.0 | 1250.0 | 17.1 | |||
| HT | 1251.0 | 1527.0 | 13.8 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 582.4 | 908.2 | 29.8 | [ |
| 650 °C | 585.8 | 819.2 | 42.1 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiB2 | Room | 719.9 | 958.3 | 5.2 | |||
| 650 °C | 748.5 | 916.6 | 8.4 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiB2 | Room | 727.7 | 1008.7 | 6.3 | |||
| 650 °C | 771.9 | 963.6 | 8.0 | ||||
| IN718 | / | HT | 650 °C | 983.4 | 1008.0 | 2.1 | [ |
| 800 °C | 501.3 | 556.2 | 1.0 | ||||
| 2 wt% ZrB2 | As | Room | 1067.1 | 1347.3 | 7.3 | ||
| HT | 1425.4 | 1600.0 | 5.7 | ||||
| 650 °C | 1086.7 | 1162.3 | 1.5 | ||||
| 800 °C | 552.2 | 603.1 | 9.2 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 650 °C | 704.7 | 914.6 | 15.8 | [ |
| HT | 686.3 | 910.4 | 16.2 | ||||
| 1 wt% Ti2AlC | As | 789.5 | 997.8 | 18.0 | |||
| HT | 868.6 | 1072.1 | 8.9 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 873.0 | 1178.0 | 15.0 | [ |
| 1 wt% TiN | 935.0 | 1253.0 | 14.5 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiN | 1049.0 | 1391.0 | 13.8 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiN | 1280.0 | 1539.0 | 12.4 | ||||
| 4 wt% TiN | 1159.0 | 1479.0 | 9.3 | ||||
| 5 wt% TiN | 1106.0 | 1433.0 | 8.5 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 777.0 | 1036.0 | 31.4 | [ |
| HT | 1098.0 | 1329.0 | 24.0 | ||||
| 650 °C | 800.0 | 987.0 | 19.3 | ||||
| 0.2 wt% CoAl2O4 | As | Room | 800.0 | 1069.0 | 30.3 | ||
| HT | 1161.0 | 1363.0 | 20.2 | ||||
| 650 °C | 866.0 | 1036.0 | 16.7 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 785.4 | 965.7 | 23.7 | [ |
| HT | 829.2 | 1102.6 | 27.0 | ||||
| 1.0 wt% Y2O3 | As | 1269.4 | 1384.9 | 9.7 | |||
| HT | 1350.5 | 1478.1 | 12.1 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 851.9 | 1179.5 | 22.0 | [ |
| HT | 1015.5 | 1284.3 | 12.0 | ||||
| 1.0 wt% Y2O3 | As | 856.8 | 1189.2 | 27.6 | |||
| HT | 1099.3 | 1385.5 | 8.8 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 832.5 | 1074.0 | 33.0 | [ |
| 650 °C | 623.3 | 847.0 | 21.3 | ||||
| 1.0 wt% Y2O3 | Room | 850.1 | 1099.6 | 18.0 | |||
| 650 °C | 690.2 | 943.0 | 17.2 | ||||
| IN718 | Y2O3-FeO | As | Room | 860.0 | 1097.0 | 7.8 | [ |
| 700 °C | 715.0 | 865.3 | 4.4 | ||||
| HT | Room | 1022.5 | 1292.0 | 7.2 | |||
| 700 °C | 771.3 | 826.0 | 6.0 | ||||
| Y2O3-FeO-Hf | As | Room | 863.0 | 1071.0 | 3.7 | ||
| 700oC | 752.0 | 867.7 | 4.2 | ||||
| HT | Room | 1016.0 | 1216.5 | 2.7 | |||
| 700 oC | 761.7 | 803.0 | 2.8 | ||||
| IN738LC | / | As | Room | 710.0 | 920.0 | 4.2 | [ |
| 850 °C | 108.0 | 160.0 | 11.5 | ||||
| TiC | Room | 1180.0 | 1420.0 | 2.3 | |||
| 850 °C | 320.0 | 410.0 | 6.3 | ||||
| IN738LC | / | As | Room | 589.0 | 633.0 | 1.3 | [ |
| 2.5 wt% TiC | 1018.0 | 1207.0 | 5.7 |
Table 3. Tensile properties of precipitation strengthened superalloy composites via LPBF.
| Superalloy | Ceramic type | Condition | Temperature | Yield strength (MPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Elongation (%) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 646.5 | 940.1 | 35.5 | [ |
| HT | 1211.3 | 1408.5 | 14.8 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiC | As | 774.3 | 1029.0 | 12.3 | |||
| HT | 1144.0 | 1380.9 | 9.1 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 692.2 | 950.8 | 31.4 | [ |
| 0.5 wt% WC | 734.1 | 1017.2 | 30.4 | ||||
| 2.0 wt% WC | 891.3 | 1201.9 | 26.8 | ||||
| 4.0 wt% WC | 723.8 | 1002.3 | 27.5 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 826.0 | 1095.0 | 30.3 | [ |
| HT | 1264.0 | 1398.0 | 16.1 | ||||
| 2 wt% SiC | As | 963.0 | 1250.0 | 17.1 | |||
| HT | 1251.0 | 1527.0 | 13.8 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 582.4 | 908.2 | 29.8 | [ |
| 650 °C | 585.8 | 819.2 | 42.1 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiB2 | Room | 719.9 | 958.3 | 5.2 | |||
| 650 °C | 748.5 | 916.6 | 8.4 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiB2 | Room | 727.7 | 1008.7 | 6.3 | |||
| 650 °C | 771.9 | 963.6 | 8.0 | ||||
| IN718 | / | HT | 650 °C | 983.4 | 1008.0 | 2.1 | [ |
| 800 °C | 501.3 | 556.2 | 1.0 | ||||
| 2 wt% ZrB2 | As | Room | 1067.1 | 1347.3 | 7.3 | ||
| HT | 1425.4 | 1600.0 | 5.7 | ||||
| 650 °C | 1086.7 | 1162.3 | 1.5 | ||||
| 800 °C | 552.2 | 603.1 | 9.2 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 650 °C | 704.7 | 914.6 | 15.8 | [ |
| HT | 686.3 | 910.4 | 16.2 | ||||
| 1 wt% Ti2AlC | As | 789.5 | 997.8 | 18.0 | |||
| HT | 868.6 | 1072.1 | 8.9 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 873.0 | 1178.0 | 15.0 | [ |
| 1 wt% TiN | 935.0 | 1253.0 | 14.5 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiN | 1049.0 | 1391.0 | 13.8 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiN | 1280.0 | 1539.0 | 12.4 | ||||
| 4 wt% TiN | 1159.0 | 1479.0 | 9.3 | ||||
| 5 wt% TiN | 1106.0 | 1433.0 | 8.5 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 777.0 | 1036.0 | 31.4 | [ |
| HT | 1098.0 | 1329.0 | 24.0 | ||||
| 650 °C | 800.0 | 987.0 | 19.3 | ||||
| 0.2 wt% CoAl2O4 | As | Room | 800.0 | 1069.0 | 30.3 | ||
| HT | 1161.0 | 1363.0 | 20.2 | ||||
| 650 °C | 866.0 | 1036.0 | 16.7 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 785.4 | 965.7 | 23.7 | [ |
| HT | 829.2 | 1102.6 | 27.0 | ||||
| 1.0 wt% Y2O3 | As | 1269.4 | 1384.9 | 9.7 | |||
| HT | 1350.5 | 1478.1 | 12.1 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 851.9 | 1179.5 | 22.0 | [ |
| HT | 1015.5 | 1284.3 | 12.0 | ||||
| 1.0 wt% Y2O3 | As | 856.8 | 1189.2 | 27.6 | |||
| HT | 1099.3 | 1385.5 | 8.8 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | Room | 832.5 | 1074.0 | 33.0 | [ |
| 650 °C | 623.3 | 847.0 | 21.3 | ||||
| 1.0 wt% Y2O3 | Room | 850.1 | 1099.6 | 18.0 | |||
| 650 °C | 690.2 | 943.0 | 17.2 | ||||
| IN718 | Y2O3-FeO | As | Room | 860.0 | 1097.0 | 7.8 | [ |
| 700 °C | 715.0 | 865.3 | 4.4 | ||||
| HT | Room | 1022.5 | 1292.0 | 7.2 | |||
| 700 °C | 771.3 | 826.0 | 6.0 | ||||
| Y2O3-FeO-Hf | As | Room | 863.0 | 1071.0 | 3.7 | ||
| 700oC | 752.0 | 867.7 | 4.2 | ||||
| HT | Room | 1016.0 | 1216.5 | 2.7 | |||
| 700 oC | 761.7 | 803.0 | 2.8 | ||||
| IN738LC | / | As | Room | 710.0 | 920.0 | 4.2 | [ |
| 850 °C | 108.0 | 160.0 | 11.5 | ||||
| TiC | Room | 1180.0 | 1420.0 | 2.3 | |||
| 850 °C | 320.0 | 410.0 | 6.3 | ||||
| IN738LC | / | As | Room | 589.0 | 633.0 | 1.3 | [ |
| 2.5 wt% TiC | 1018.0 | 1207.0 | 5.7 |
| Superalloy | Ceramic type | Condition | Temperature | Yield strength (MPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Elongation (%) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HX | / | As | Room | 753.0 | 920.0 | 13.0 | [ |
| 1 wt% TiC | 861.0 | 1100.0 | 23.0 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiC | 896.0 | 1130.0 | 11.0 | ||||
| HX | As | Room | 619 | 708 | 7 | [ | |
| 3 wt% TiC | 842 | 1131 | 16 | ||||
| HX | / | As | Room | 458.1 | 642.3 | 24.0 | [ |
| 1 wt% TiB2 | 657.2 | 887.1 | 15.8 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiB2 | 923.0 | 1129.2 | 2.89 | ||||
| / | 850 °C | / | 184.4 | 2.8 | |||
| 1 wt% TiB2 | / | 327.3 | 9.2 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiB2 | / | 381.3 | 13.6 | ||||
| HX | / | As | Room | 555.9 | 692.5 | 7.3 | [ |
| 2 wt% TiB2 | 715.5 | 1053.2 | 6.1 | ||||
| HX | / | As | Room | 539.0 | 649.0 | 8.8 | [ |
| 3 wt% TiC | 820.0 | 1100.0 | 6.2 | ||||
| 1.5 wt% TiC + 1.5 wt% TiB2 | 1026.0 | 1206.0 | 10.0 | ||||
| IN625 | / | As | Room | 841.0 | 1054.0 | 36.9 | [ |
| TiB2 | 1386.0 | 1649.0 | 7.2 | ||||
| TiC | 1093.0 | 1364.0 | 19.7 | ||||
| ZrB2 | 1297.0 | 1471.0 | 6.0 | ||||
| ZrC | 998.0 | 1165.0 | 7.5 | ||||
| / | 800 °C | 332.0 | 358.0 | 5.4 | |||
| TiB2 | 520.0 | 605.0 | 14.3 | ||||
| TiC | 362.0 | 387.0 | 10.1 | ||||
| ZrB2 | 435.0 | 495.0 | 14.9 | ||||
| ZrC | 313.0 | 331.0 | 3.4 | ||||
| IN625 | / | As | Room | 723.0 | 957.0 | 29.0 | [ |
| HT-1 | 733.0 | 1039.0 | 34.0 | ||||
| HT-2 | 394.0 | 814.0 | 45.0 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiC | As | 883.0 | 1195.0 | 27.0 | |||
| HT-1 | 773.0 | 1130.0 | 21.0 | ||||
| HT-2 | 750.0 | 1231.0 | 25.0 | ||||
| IN625 | 4 wt% TiC | As | Room | 641.0 | 1204.0 | 45.0 | [ |
| HT | 769.0 | 1435.0 | 40.6 | ||||
| GH3230 | / | As | Room | 587.0 | 690.0 | 6.6 | [ |
| 900 °C | 173.0 | 213.0 | 6.4 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiB2 | Room | 882.0 | 1214.0 | 14.2 | |||
| 900 °C | 288.0 | 352.0 | 36.8 | ||||
| GH3230 | / | As | Room | 485.5 | 659.2 | 13.85 | [ |
| 1 wt% TiB2 | As | 900 °C | 785.5 | 1116.2 | 17.59 | ||
| HT | 945.5 | 1249.0 | 8.1 | ||||
| GH3230 | 0.5 wt% TiB2 | As | 900 °C | 208.0 | 255.0 | 23.0 | [ |
| HT | 173.0 | 215.0 | 101.0 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiB2 | As | 237.0 | 290.0 | 34.9 | |||
| HT | 191.5 | 236.5 | 72.0 |
Table 4. Tensile properties of solid-solution strengthened superalloy composites via LPBF.
| Superalloy | Ceramic type | Condition | Temperature | Yield strength (MPa) | Tensile strength (MPa) | Elongation (%) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HX | / | As | Room | 753.0 | 920.0 | 13.0 | [ |
| 1 wt% TiC | 861.0 | 1100.0 | 23.0 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiC | 896.0 | 1130.0 | 11.0 | ||||
| HX | As | Room | 619 | 708 | 7 | [ | |
| 3 wt% TiC | 842 | 1131 | 16 | ||||
| HX | / | As | Room | 458.1 | 642.3 | 24.0 | [ |
| 1 wt% TiB2 | 657.2 | 887.1 | 15.8 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiB2 | 923.0 | 1129.2 | 2.89 | ||||
| / | 850 °C | / | 184.4 | 2.8 | |||
| 1 wt% TiB2 | / | 327.3 | 9.2 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiB2 | / | 381.3 | 13.6 | ||||
| HX | / | As | Room | 555.9 | 692.5 | 7.3 | [ |
| 2 wt% TiB2 | 715.5 | 1053.2 | 6.1 | ||||
| HX | / | As | Room | 539.0 | 649.0 | 8.8 | [ |
| 3 wt% TiC | 820.0 | 1100.0 | 6.2 | ||||
| 1.5 wt% TiC + 1.5 wt% TiB2 | 1026.0 | 1206.0 | 10.0 | ||||
| IN625 | / | As | Room | 841.0 | 1054.0 | 36.9 | [ |
| TiB2 | 1386.0 | 1649.0 | 7.2 | ||||
| TiC | 1093.0 | 1364.0 | 19.7 | ||||
| ZrB2 | 1297.0 | 1471.0 | 6.0 | ||||
| ZrC | 998.0 | 1165.0 | 7.5 | ||||
| / | 800 °C | 332.0 | 358.0 | 5.4 | |||
| TiB2 | 520.0 | 605.0 | 14.3 | ||||
| TiC | 362.0 | 387.0 | 10.1 | ||||
| ZrB2 | 435.0 | 495.0 | 14.9 | ||||
| ZrC | 313.0 | 331.0 | 3.4 | ||||
| IN625 | / | As | Room | 723.0 | 957.0 | 29.0 | [ |
| HT-1 | 733.0 | 1039.0 | 34.0 | ||||
| HT-2 | 394.0 | 814.0 | 45.0 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiC | As | 883.0 | 1195.0 | 27.0 | |||
| HT-1 | 773.0 | 1130.0 | 21.0 | ||||
| HT-2 | 750.0 | 1231.0 | 25.0 | ||||
| IN625 | 4 wt% TiC | As | Room | 641.0 | 1204.0 | 45.0 | [ |
| HT | 769.0 | 1435.0 | 40.6 | ||||
| GH3230 | / | As | Room | 587.0 | 690.0 | 6.6 | [ |
| 900 °C | 173.0 | 213.0 | 6.4 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiB2 | Room | 882.0 | 1214.0 | 14.2 | |||
| 900 °C | 288.0 | 352.0 | 36.8 | ||||
| GH3230 | / | As | Room | 485.5 | 659.2 | 13.85 | [ |
| 1 wt% TiB2 | As | 900 °C | 785.5 | 1116.2 | 17.59 | ||
| HT | 945.5 | 1249.0 | 8.1 | ||||
| GH3230 | 0.5 wt% TiB2 | As | 900 °C | 208.0 | 255.0 | 23.0 | [ |
| HT | 173.0 | 215.0 | 101.0 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiB2 | As | 237.0 | 290.0 | 34.9 | |||
| HT | 191.5 | 236.5 | 72.0 |
Fig. 11. HRTEM images of the IN625 with Y2O3 composites showing the presence of (a) deformation twins (DTs) and (b) stacking faults (SFs). (c) Schematic diagram illustrating the dislocation and deformation substructure formation in IN625 with Y2O3 during tensile testing at 700 °C [96].
| Enhancement type | Superalloy | Ceramic | Condition | Hardness (HV) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Precipitation strengthening | IN718 | / | As | 355.0 | [ |
| 10 vol.% TiC | 519.0 | ||||
| 20 vol.% TiC | 558.0 | ||||
| 30 vol.% TiC | 619.0 | ||||
| IN718 | 2 wt% WC | As | 361.9 | [ | |
| HT | 497.2 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 304.8 | [ | |
| 10 wt% WC | 349.6 | ||||
| 15 wt% WC | 388.4 | ||||
| 20 wt% WC | 421.3 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 319.0 | [ | |
| HT | 436.3 | ||||
| 2 wt% SiC | As | 363.0 | |||
| HT | 468.9 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 302.5 | [ | |
| 1 wt% TiB2 | 345.6 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiB2 | 362.8 | ||||
| IN718 | 2 vol.% ZrB2 | As | 475.7 | [ | |
| HT | 576.2 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 311.0 | [ | |
| 1 wt% TiN | 331.0 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiN | 345.0 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiN | 376.0 | ||||
| 4 wt% TiN | 381.0 | ||||
| 5 wt% TiN | 387.0 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 356.0 | [ | |
| TiN | 396.0 | ||||
| 633.0 | |||||
| 543.0 | |||||
| 581.0 | |||||
| IN718 | / | As | 314.4 | [ | |
| 1 wt% Y2O3 | 352.9 | ||||
| IN718 | Y2O3-FeO | As | 327.0 | [ | |
| HT | 348.0 | ||||
| Y2O3-FeO-Hf | As | 401.0 | |||
| HT | 416.0 | ||||
| IN738LC | / | As | 405.0 | [ | |
| TiC | 506.0 | ||||
| Solid solution strengthening | HX | / | As | 252.5 | [ |
| 3 wt% TiC | 342.1 | ||||
| 1.5 wt% TiC-1.5 wt% TiB2 | 469.7 | ||||
| HX | 1 wt% TiB2 | As | 331.7 | [ | |
| 3 wt% TiB2 | 405.7 | ||||
| IN625 | / | As | 238.0 | [ | |
| HT-1 | 220.0 | ||||
| HT-2 | 161.0 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiC | As | 377.0 | |||
| HT-1 | 347.0 | ||||
| HT-2 | 325.0 | ||||
| IN625 | 1 wt% TiC | As | 312.0 | [ | |
| HT | 256.0 | ||||
| IN625 | 4 wt% TiC | As | 440.0 | [ | |
| HT | 526.0 | ||||
| IN625 | / | As | 298.0 | [ | |
| 0.3 wt% Y2O3-0.4 wt% Hf | 314.0 |
Table 5. Hardness of superalloy composite materials fabricated by LPBF.
| Enhancement type | Superalloy | Ceramic | Condition | Hardness (HV) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Precipitation strengthening | IN718 | / | As | 355.0 | [ |
| 10 vol.% TiC | 519.0 | ||||
| 20 vol.% TiC | 558.0 | ||||
| 30 vol.% TiC | 619.0 | ||||
| IN718 | 2 wt% WC | As | 361.9 | [ | |
| HT | 497.2 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 304.8 | [ | |
| 10 wt% WC | 349.6 | ||||
| 15 wt% WC | 388.4 | ||||
| 20 wt% WC | 421.3 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 319.0 | [ | |
| HT | 436.3 | ||||
| 2 wt% SiC | As | 363.0 | |||
| HT | 468.9 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 302.5 | [ | |
| 1 wt% TiB2 | 345.6 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiB2 | 362.8 | ||||
| IN718 | 2 vol.% ZrB2 | As | 475.7 | [ | |
| HT | 576.2 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 311.0 | [ | |
| 1 wt% TiN | 331.0 | ||||
| 2 wt% TiN | 345.0 | ||||
| 3 wt% TiN | 376.0 | ||||
| 4 wt% TiN | 381.0 | ||||
| 5 wt% TiN | 387.0 | ||||
| IN718 | / | As | 356.0 | [ | |
| TiN | 396.0 | ||||
| 633.0 | |||||
| 543.0 | |||||
| 581.0 | |||||
| IN718 | / | As | 314.4 | [ | |
| 1 wt% Y2O3 | 352.9 | ||||
| IN718 | Y2O3-FeO | As | 327.0 | [ | |
| HT | 348.0 | ||||
| Y2O3-FeO-Hf | As | 401.0 | |||
| HT | 416.0 | ||||
| IN738LC | / | As | 405.0 | [ | |
| TiC | 506.0 | ||||
| Solid solution strengthening | HX | / | As | 252.5 | [ |
| 3 wt% TiC | 342.1 | ||||
| 1.5 wt% TiC-1.5 wt% TiB2 | 469.7 | ||||
| HX | 1 wt% TiB2 | As | 331.7 | [ | |
| 3 wt% TiB2 | 405.7 | ||||
| IN625 | / | As | 238.0 | [ | |
| HT-1 | 220.0 | ||||
| HT-2 | 161.0 | ||||
| 1 wt% TiC | As | 377.0 | |||
| HT-1 | 347.0 | ||||
| HT-2 | 325.0 | ||||
| IN625 | 1 wt% TiC | As | 312.0 | [ | |
| HT | 256.0 | ||||
| IN625 | 4 wt% TiC | As | 440.0 | [ | |
| HT | 526.0 | ||||
| IN625 | / | As | 298.0 | [ | |
| 0.3 wt% Y2O3-0.4 wt% Hf | 314.0 |
Fig. 12. Wear resistance of ceramic-reinforced superalloy composites (a−d) with the wear mechanisms (e) fabricated by LPBF. (a) Average coefficient of friction and (b) wear rate of IN625-TiC composites under different laser fluences [100]. (c) Wear track profiles of IN718-WC composites and (d) wear track cross-sectional morphology with wear mechanism (e) [48].
Fig. 13. Cross-sectional morphologies of homogenized and double-aged (HA) IN718-WC: (a) SEM images, (b) EDS line scan, (c) EDS mapping of the oxidation structure [102].
Fig. 14. Schematic illustration for the formation of surface oxides: (a) formation of a dense Cr2O3 layer, (b) formation of the Cr lean zone, (c) formation of Ni(Fe, Cr)2O4 layer, (d) severe spallation of oxide layer [103].
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