Metals Advances ›› 2026, Vol. 42: 66-85.DOI: 10.1016/j.metadv.2026.02.024
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Qianxi Zhanga, Bo Hua,*(
), Hong Gaoa, Wanqi Huanga, Zhipeng Xiaob, Jun Jiangc, Wanzhang Yangd, Bensong Chend, Dejiang Lia,*(), Xiaoqin Zenga
Received:2025-08-20
Revised:2025-11-15
Accepted:2025-12-25
Online:2026-04-10
Published:2026-02-12
Contact:
Qianxi Zhang, Bo Hu, Hong Gao, Wanqi Huang, Zhipeng Xiao, Jun Jiang, Wanzhang Yang, Bensong Chen, Dejiang Li, Xiaoqin Zeng. A review of creep-resistant aluminum alloys: Control of primary strengthening phases[J]. Metals Advances, 2026, 42: 66-85.
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Fig. 1. Creep mechanisms and influential factors in heat-resistant aluminum alloys.
| Category | Factors | Principal mechanisms | Representative equations and key parameters | Critical impacts |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| External environmental factors | Temperature [ | Increased atomic diffusion; reduced interfacial and phase thermal stability | temperature ( | At high temperature and low stress, diffusion/GBS mechanisms dominate; increasing temperature aggravates strengthening phases coarsening and solid-solution degradation. |
| Stress [ | Enhanced dislocation glide and climb; with temperature, co-controls steady-state creep | stress ( | At higher stresses, creep is usually dislocation-controlled; when the stress exponent is large, the steady-state creep rate is highly stress-sensitive. | |
| Intrinsic material factors | Solid solution [ | Solute drag; cottrell-atmosphere | Its contribution is more pronounced at low-intermediate temperatures; it weakens at high temperature due to rapid solute diffusion. | |
| Grains [ | Impedes dislocation motion and grain boundary sliding | At higher temperatures, grain refinement is markedly detrimental to creep. | ||
| Intragranular precipitates [ | Orowan bypassing; precipitate shearing | ∆τ=Gb2π1−v1λln(dpr0) rt3−r03=K | At low-intermediate temperatures, intragranular precipitates are critical in dislocation-controlled creep; their benefit increases with high thermal stability. | |
| GB strengthening phases [ | Load transfer; GBS suppression | volume fraction ( | Heat-resistant strengthening phases determine long-term stability at elevated temperatures. |
Table 1. Principal mechanisms and critical impacts of influencing factors.
| Category | Factors | Principal mechanisms | Representative equations and key parameters | Critical impacts |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| External environmental factors | Temperature [ | Increased atomic diffusion; reduced interfacial and phase thermal stability | temperature ( | At high temperature and low stress, diffusion/GBS mechanisms dominate; increasing temperature aggravates strengthening phases coarsening and solid-solution degradation. |
| Stress [ | Enhanced dislocation glide and climb; with temperature, co-controls steady-state creep | stress ( | At higher stresses, creep is usually dislocation-controlled; when the stress exponent is large, the steady-state creep rate is highly stress-sensitive. | |
| Intrinsic material factors | Solid solution [ | Solute drag; cottrell-atmosphere | Its contribution is more pronounced at low-intermediate temperatures; it weakens at high temperature due to rapid solute diffusion. | |
| Grains [ | Impedes dislocation motion and grain boundary sliding | At higher temperatures, grain refinement is markedly detrimental to creep. | ||
| Intragranular precipitates [ | Orowan bypassing; precipitate shearing | ∆τ=Gb2π1−v1λln(dpr0) rt3−r03=K | At low-intermediate temperatures, intragranular precipitates are critical in dislocation-controlled creep; their benefit increases with high thermal stability. | |
| GB strengthening phases [ | Load transfer; GBS suppression | volume fraction ( | Heat-resistant strengthening phases determine long-term stability at elevated temperatures. |
Fig. 2. Creep resistance optimization strategies: the control of strengthening phases.
Fig. 3. (a, b) Effect of room temperature delay on creep properties of under-aged Al-Cu-Mg-Ag alloy. (c, d) Hardness variation during room temperature delay after under-aging and electron diffraction patterns of secondary precipitated phases [49].
Fig. 4. Microstructural features of the Al-Cu-Sc alloy after each heat-treatment step and after creep test. Top row: schematic showing the microstructure developed in Step-I (a), Step-II (e), Step-III (i) and after creep test (m), with corresponding TEM images in (b), (f), (j), and (n), respectively. SAED pattern of Sc-enriched heterogeneities signed by red circle in (b) was given in top right corner. Corresponding 3D-APT maps showing Sc segregation at the α-Al/θ′ interface are in (c), (k), and (p), and Al3Sc precipitates in (g) and (h), respectively. The bottom row is 3D-APT maps, showing Sc-enriched heterogeneities after Step I in (d), θ′-Al2Cu precipitates nucleated on the Al3Sc particles in (l) after Step III, and (p) Al3Sc-PDZ after creep test. Note that an Al3Sc forming on the α-Al/θ′ interface after creep was marked by arrow in (o) [53].
Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of microstructural differences that determine the differences in creep resistance between (a) 7Cu (FG) and (b) RR350 alloys. The type and morphology of grain boundary precipitates play a significant role in determining the diffusion and dislocation creep regime behavior of Al-Cu alloys [54].
| Alloy code | Composition (wt%) and processing | Heat treatment | Creep conditions | Creep rate (s−1) | n | Q (kJ/mol) | σth (MPa) | Creep mechanism | Strengthening mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Cu-Mg-Ag [ | 5.6Cu-0.45Mg-0.45Ag (gravity cast) | T6 | 150 °C, 300 MPa | 1.12 × 10−9 | \ | \ | Dislocation viscous glide and climb | Under-aging retains more θ′ precipitate | |
| UA | 150 °C, 300 MPa | 4.83 × 10−10 | 4.3 | \ | \ | ||||
| Al-Cu-Mg [ | 3Cu-0.46Mg (rolling) | UA | 185 °C, 150 MPa | 5.33 × 10−7 | 4.17 | 232 | 79 | Dislocation viscous glide and climb | Under-aging and Cu/Mg segregation |
| PA | 185 °C, 150 MPa | ∼6.5 × 10−10 | 3.96 | \ | 87 | ||||
| OA | 185 °C, 150 MPa | 2.39 × 10−6 | 4.01 | \ | 140 | ||||
| Al-Cu-Sc [ | 2.5Cu-0.3Sc (gravity cast) | RR | 300 °C, 30 MPa | ∼1 × 10−9 | 7.97 | \ | \ | Dislocation climb | Sc addition refines θ′ precipitate and enhances thermal stability via surface segregation |
| AA | 300 °C, 30 MPa | ∼2 × 10−8 | 8.34 | \ | \ | ||||
| 206 [ | 4.5Cu-0.3Mg-0.23Mn (gravity cast) | T5 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | 7 × 10−6 | 22 | \ | \ | Power-law breakdown | Alloying (Mn/Zr/Ni/Co) improves θ′ precipitate stability |
| Al-7Cu [ | 6.4Cu-0.19Mn-0.13Zr (gravity cast, small grain) | T5 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | 5 × 10−8 | 5.0 | \ | Dislocation climb | ||
| Al-7Cu [ | 6.4Cu-0.19Mn-0.13Zr (gravity cast, large grain) | T5 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | 7 × 10−9 | 4.2 | \ | \ | ||
| RR350 [ | 4.8Cu-0.19Mn-0.17Zr-1.2Ni-0.26Co-0.21Ti (gravity cast) | T5 | 300 °C, 60 MPa | ∼1.5 × 10−8 | 7.2 | \ | \ | Dislocation climb | |
| Al-Cu [ | 6.0Cu-0.15Mn-0.25Ti-0.13V-0.13Zr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 2.18 × 10−5 | 18.1 | 166 | \ | Dislocation climb | Pr reduces θ′ size, increases density and thermal stability |
| +0.3Pr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 5.17 × 10−6 | 19.6 | 216 | \ | |||
| Al-Cu [ | 5.5Cu-0.45Mn-0.3Ti-0.2V-0.2Cd-0.15Zr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 2.18 × 10−5 | 18.1 | 166 | 45 | Dislocation climb | Rare earth compounds pin grain boundaries and stabilize θ′ precipitate |
| +0.3Pr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 5.17 × 10−6 | 19.6 | 216 | 51 | |||
| +0.3La (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 4.47 × 10−6 | 20.3 | 260 | 55 | |||
| +0.2La and 0.1Pr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 4.11 × 10−6 | 21.7 | 266 | \ |
Table 2. High-temperature creep properties, creep mechanisms, and strengthening mechanisms of Al-Cu series alloys.
| Alloy code | Composition (wt%) and processing | Heat treatment | Creep conditions | Creep rate (s−1) | n | Q (kJ/mol) | σth (MPa) | Creep mechanism | Strengthening mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Cu-Mg-Ag [ | 5.6Cu-0.45Mg-0.45Ag (gravity cast) | T6 | 150 °C, 300 MPa | 1.12 × 10−9 | \ | \ | Dislocation viscous glide and climb | Under-aging retains more θ′ precipitate | |
| UA | 150 °C, 300 MPa | 4.83 × 10−10 | 4.3 | \ | \ | ||||
| Al-Cu-Mg [ | 3Cu-0.46Mg (rolling) | UA | 185 °C, 150 MPa | 5.33 × 10−7 | 4.17 | 232 | 79 | Dislocation viscous glide and climb | Under-aging and Cu/Mg segregation |
| PA | 185 °C, 150 MPa | ∼6.5 × 10−10 | 3.96 | \ | 87 | ||||
| OA | 185 °C, 150 MPa | 2.39 × 10−6 | 4.01 | \ | 140 | ||||
| Al-Cu-Sc [ | 2.5Cu-0.3Sc (gravity cast) | RR | 300 °C, 30 MPa | ∼1 × 10−9 | 7.97 | \ | \ | Dislocation climb | Sc addition refines θ′ precipitate and enhances thermal stability via surface segregation |
| AA | 300 °C, 30 MPa | ∼2 × 10−8 | 8.34 | \ | \ | ||||
| 206 [ | 4.5Cu-0.3Mg-0.23Mn (gravity cast) | T5 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | 7 × 10−6 | 22 | \ | \ | Power-law breakdown | Alloying (Mn/Zr/Ni/Co) improves θ′ precipitate stability |
| Al-7Cu [ | 6.4Cu-0.19Mn-0.13Zr (gravity cast, small grain) | T5 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | 5 × 10−8 | 5.0 | \ | Dislocation climb | ||
| Al-7Cu [ | 6.4Cu-0.19Mn-0.13Zr (gravity cast, large grain) | T5 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | 7 × 10−9 | 4.2 | \ | \ | ||
| RR350 [ | 4.8Cu-0.19Mn-0.17Zr-1.2Ni-0.26Co-0.21Ti (gravity cast) | T5 | 300 °C, 60 MPa | ∼1.5 × 10−8 | 7.2 | \ | \ | Dislocation climb | |
| Al-Cu [ | 6.0Cu-0.15Mn-0.25Ti-0.13V-0.13Zr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 2.18 × 10−5 | 18.1 | 166 | \ | Dislocation climb | Pr reduces θ′ size, increases density and thermal stability |
| +0.3Pr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 5.17 × 10−6 | 19.6 | 216 | \ | |||
| Al-Cu [ | 5.5Cu-0.45Mn-0.3Ti-0.2V-0.2Cd-0.15Zr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 2.18 × 10−5 | 18.1 | 166 | 45 | Dislocation climb | Rare earth compounds pin grain boundaries and stabilize θ′ precipitate |
| +0.3Pr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 5.17 × 10−6 | 19.6 | 216 | 51 | |||
| +0.3La (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 4.47 × 10−6 | 20.3 | 260 | 55 | |||
| +0.2La and 0.1Pr (gravity cast) | T6 | 200 °C, 80 MPa | 4.11 × 10−6 | 21.7 | 266 | \ |
Fig. 6. UTS values for an A354 alloy in T6 and the as-cast conditions as a function of testing temperature [62].
Fig. 7. Creep cavity morphologies of vacuum counter-pressure casting AlSi7Mg alloy under different creep conditions: (a) 250 °C, 35 kPa; (b) 250 °C, 85 kPa; (c) 300 °C, 35 kPa; (d) 300 °C, 85 kPa [36].
Fig. 8. Optical micrographs showing the evolution of microstructure and redistribution of the eutectic constituent in the FP of the Al-7 wt% Si alloy after (a) one ECAP pass and (b) eight ECAP passes using route A. SEM images showing eutectic Si particle size after (c) one ECAP pass and (d) eight ECAP passes, and at a higher magnification the presence of fine intradendritic Si precipitates and the grain size after (e) one ECAP pass and (f) eight ECAP passes following route A [37].
Fig. 9. Comparison of microstructures between samples aged at 260 °C and 300 °C for (a, b) 1 h, (c, d) 6 h, (e, f) 96 h, and (g, h) 768 h. Higher magnification insets illustrate the spheroidization and coarsening of the initial submicron Si cellular network into equiaxed Si particles, increasing in size from hundreds of nanometers after (a, b) 1 h to 2-3 µm after (g, h) 768 h [65].
Fig. 10. BF-TEM micrographs showing dispersoids formed in (a) Al-7Si-0.5Cu-0.3Mg-0.1Fe-0.3Mo, (b) Al-7Si-0.5Cu-0.3Mg-0.1Fe-0.3Mo-0.15Mn, and (c) Al-7Si-0.5Cu-0.3Mg-0.1Fe-0.3Mo-0.5Mn alloys at 540 °C after 600 min in intra-dendritic regions [71].
Fig. 11. Schematic of (a) the atomic arrangement of CeSi2 on (001) lattice plane and (b) the atomic arrangement of MgSi2 on (100) lattice plane. (c) Matching relationship between atoms of CeSi2 on (001) lattice plane and Mg2Si on (100) lattice plane. (d) The lattice mismatch between the (001) CeSi2//(100) Mg2Si planes is 7.97% [77].
| Alloy code | Composition (wt%) | Processing condition | Creep conditions | Creep rate (s−1) | n | Q (kJ/mol) | σth (MPa) | Creep mechanism | Strengthening mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Si-Mg [ | Si: 6.5-7.5, Mg: 0.45-0.75 | Pressure: 35 kPa | 300 °C, 90 MPa | 1.833 × 10−5 | \ | \ | \ | Increased differential pressure refines eutectic Si, improves distribution uniformity, hinders grain boundary sliding and crack coalescence | |
| Pressure: 185 kPa | 300 °C, 90 MPa | 4.444 × 10−6 | \ | \ | \ | \ | |||
| Al-Si [ | Si: 7, Na: 0.02 | ECAP, 1 P | 300 °C, 50 MPa | ∼1 × 10−3 | 5.9 | 223 | \ | Substructure sliding creep | Eutectic structure disrupted, Si particles redistributed, fine Si precipitates uniformly in matrix |
| Al-Si-Mg [ | Si: 10, Mg: 0.6 | L-PBF | 300 °C, 45 MPa | ∼8 × 10−6 | 10 | 256 | 18 | Power-law dislocation creep | Load transfer, submicron-spaced lamellae effectively hinder dislocations |
| Al-Si-Cu-Mg [ | Si: 6.65, Mg: 0.66, Cu: 0.56 | T7 | 300 °C, 24 MPa | ∼1.1 × 10−8 | 8.7 | \ | 11 | Dislocation mechanism | Mg and Cu alloying form Q phase, the only stable phase at 300 °C |
| Al-Si-Cu-Mg + Mo, Mn [ | Si: 6.49, Mg: 0.31, Cu: 0.53, Mo: 0.29 | T7 | 300 °C, ∼25 MPa | ∼6 × 10−9 | 4.4 | \ | 20 | Dislocation mechanism | Mo alloying forms α-Al(Fe, Mo)Si dispersoids in matrix |
| Si: 6.66, Mg: 0.36, Cu: 0.56, Mo: 0.34, Mn: 0.18 | T7 | 300 °C, ∼25.5 MPa | ∼2 × 10−9 | 4.4 | \ | 23 | Dislocation mechanism | Mn replaces some Fe, increasing dispersoids count and reducing size | |
| Al-Si-Mg + Zr [ | Si: 6.85, Mg: 0.32 | T6 | 300 °C, 25 MPa | 2.99 × 10−3 | \ | \ | \ | \ | Eutectic Si modification, forming thermally stable coherent/semi-coherent nano dispersoids |
| Si: 6.85, Mg: 0.32, Zr: 0.16 | T6 | 300 °C, 25 MPa | 1.35 × 10−3 | \ | \ | \ | |||
| Al-Si-Mg + Y, Ce [ | Si: 7, Mg: 1, Y: 0.3 | Vacuum differential pressure casting | 200 °C, 90 MPa | 3.027 × 10−7 | 3.52 | \ | \ | Dislocation viscous glide | Rare earth elements promote eutectic Si fiberization and adsorb on Mg2Si surfaces to inhibit coarsening |
| Si: 7, Mg: 1, Ce: 0.3 | 200 °C, 90 MPa | 4.97 × 10−7 | 3.88 | \ | \ | Dislocation viscous glide |
Table 3. High-temperature creep properties, mechanisms, and strengthening mechanisms of Al-Si series alloys.
| Alloy code | Composition (wt%) | Processing condition | Creep conditions | Creep rate (s−1) | n | Q (kJ/mol) | σth (MPa) | Creep mechanism | Strengthening mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Si-Mg [ | Si: 6.5-7.5, Mg: 0.45-0.75 | Pressure: 35 kPa | 300 °C, 90 MPa | 1.833 × 10−5 | \ | \ | \ | Increased differential pressure refines eutectic Si, improves distribution uniformity, hinders grain boundary sliding and crack coalescence | |
| Pressure: 185 kPa | 300 °C, 90 MPa | 4.444 × 10−6 | \ | \ | \ | \ | |||
| Al-Si [ | Si: 7, Na: 0.02 | ECAP, 1 P | 300 °C, 50 MPa | ∼1 × 10−3 | 5.9 | 223 | \ | Substructure sliding creep | Eutectic structure disrupted, Si particles redistributed, fine Si precipitates uniformly in matrix |
| Al-Si-Mg [ | Si: 10, Mg: 0.6 | L-PBF | 300 °C, 45 MPa | ∼8 × 10−6 | 10 | 256 | 18 | Power-law dislocation creep | Load transfer, submicron-spaced lamellae effectively hinder dislocations |
| Al-Si-Cu-Mg [ | Si: 6.65, Mg: 0.66, Cu: 0.56 | T7 | 300 °C, 24 MPa | ∼1.1 × 10−8 | 8.7 | \ | 11 | Dislocation mechanism | Mg and Cu alloying form Q phase, the only stable phase at 300 °C |
| Al-Si-Cu-Mg + Mo, Mn [ | Si: 6.49, Mg: 0.31, Cu: 0.53, Mo: 0.29 | T7 | 300 °C, ∼25 MPa | ∼6 × 10−9 | 4.4 | \ | 20 | Dislocation mechanism | Mo alloying forms α-Al(Fe, Mo)Si dispersoids in matrix |
| Si: 6.66, Mg: 0.36, Cu: 0.56, Mo: 0.34, Mn: 0.18 | T7 | 300 °C, ∼25.5 MPa | ∼2 × 10−9 | 4.4 | \ | 23 | Dislocation mechanism | Mn replaces some Fe, increasing dispersoids count and reducing size | |
| Al-Si-Mg + Zr [ | Si: 6.85, Mg: 0.32 | T6 | 300 °C, 25 MPa | 2.99 × 10−3 | \ | \ | \ | \ | Eutectic Si modification, forming thermally stable coherent/semi-coherent nano dispersoids |
| Si: 6.85, Mg: 0.32, Zr: 0.16 | T6 | 300 °C, 25 MPa | 1.35 × 10−3 | \ | \ | \ | |||
| Al-Si-Mg + Y, Ce [ | Si: 7, Mg: 1, Y: 0.3 | Vacuum differential pressure casting | 200 °C, 90 MPa | 3.027 × 10−7 | 3.52 | \ | \ | Dislocation viscous glide | Rare earth elements promote eutectic Si fiberization and adsorb on Mg2Si surfaces to inhibit coarsening |
| Si: 7, Mg: 1, Ce: 0.3 | 200 °C, 90 MPa | 4.97 × 10−7 | 3.88 | \ | \ | Dislocation viscous glide |
Fig. 12. Scanning electron micrographs showing eutectic regions of Al-12.5Ce (wt%) compression specimens crept at (a) 260 °C for 112 h, (b) 300 °C for 178 h; (c, d) 350 °C for 148 h, with (d) showing at higher magnification the submicron Al11Ce3 eutectic phase [82].
Fig. 13. (a) Summed diffraction pattern of Al-6.9Ce-9.3Mg under zero stress at ambient temperature, with studied lattice reflections labelled, and (b) plot of lattice strain vs. applied tensile stress for Al(Mg) and Al11Ce3 phases at ambient temperature [84].
Fig. 14. Element distribution in the domains. (a) High-magnification HAADF-STEM image taken along the [010] zone-axis of the Al11Ce3 phase, showing a domain in the middle. (b), (c), and (d) corresponding EDS mapping of (a) to show the elemental distribution of Ce, Al, and Sc, respectively. A Sc-rich region can be clearly identified in (d). (e) A representative zoom-in HAADF-STEM atomic image of the domain, with the corresponding elemental atomic mapping of the (f) Ce, (g) Ce + Al, and (h) Sc distribution. (i) Sketch illustrating the atomic-scale compositional dipoles (contrasting domains) within the Al11Ce3 eutectic phase [35].
Fig. 15. Concentration profiles across the matrix/precipitate interface of Al-0.055Sc-0.005Er-0.02Zr-0.05Si (improved alloy) isothermally at 400 °C for (a) 0.5 h and (b) 66 d, after being homogenized at 640 °C for 72 h. The inset image in (a) and image (c) show the APT reconstruction of a representative precipitate from the alloy. Sc atoms are displayed in red, Zr atoms are in green, Er atoms are in blue, Si atoms are in black, and Al atoms are omitted for clarity [92].
| Alloy code | Composition (wt%) | Processing condition | Creep conditions | Creep rate (s−1) | n | Q (kJ/mol) | σth (MPa) | Creep mechanism | Strengthening mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Ce [ | Ce: 12.5 | Gravity cast | 300 °C, 23 MPa | 4.7 × 10−8 | 10 | 215 ± 18 | 22 | Dislocation climb | Load transfer by Al11Ce3 phase and dislocation pinning by precipitates |
| Al-Ce-Mg [ | Ce: 9.9, Mg: 9.3 | Homogenization treatment | 350 °C, 30 MPa | ∼3 × 10−5 | 5.2 ± 0.5 | 246 ± 23 | \ | Dislocation climb | Solid solution strengthening by Mg, precipitation strengthening by Al11Ce3, and load transfer by Al11Ce3 |
| Al-Ce-Si [ | Ce:11.0 | Gravity cast | 300 °C, 30 MPa | 1.43 × 10−6 | 5.12 | \ | 1.58 | Dislocation climb | AlCeSi phase more effectively hinder dislocation motion, and Si addition promotes fibrous Al11Ce3 growth |
| Ce: 11.1, Si: 0.87 | Gravity cast | 300 °C, 30 MPa | 8.47 × 10−7 | 5.31 | \ | 3.64 | Dislocation climb | ||
| Ce: 10.6, Si: 1.71 | Gravity cast | 300 °C, 30 MPa | 3.89 × 10−7 | 5.59 | \ | 4.68 | Dislocation climb | ||
| Al-Ce-Sc [ | Ce: 12.0, Sc: 0.4 | Gravity cast (aged) | 300 °C, 70 MPa | ∼3.5 × 10−7 | 23 | \ | ∼60 | Dislocation climb | Sc-Al dipoles enhance the plastic deformability and load-bearing capacity of the Al11Ce3 phase. |
| Sub-rapid solidification (aged) | 300 °C, 80 MPa | ∼4.5 × 10−7 | 27 | \ | ∼70 | Dislocation climb | |||
| Al-Ce-Ni-Mn [ | Ce: 10.5, Ni: 3.1, Mn: 1.2 | LPBF | 300 °C, 70 MPa | ∼2.0 × 10−9 | 7 | 189-264 | 28 | Dislocation climb | The strengthening phases exhibit high thermal stability, forming multiple barriers against creep deformation |
| 350 °C, 50 MPa | ∼8.0 × 10−9 | 6 | 26 | ||||||
| 400 °C, 28 MPa | ∼5.5 × 10−8 | 12 | 18 | ||||||
| Al-Ce-Mn-Sc-Zr [ | Ce: 9.0, Mn: 0.75, Sc: 0.18, Zr: 0.12 | Gravity cast (peak-aged) | 300 °C, 70 MPa | ∼8.0 × 10−7 | 11 | \ | 47 | \ | Synergistic strengthening through multi-scale (nano-micro) and multi-type (precipitation-solid solution-composite phase) mechanisms |
| Gravity cast (overaged) | 300 °C, 70 MPa | ∼1.2 × 10−6 | 13 | \ | 51 | \ | |||
| Al-Sc [ | Sc: 0.3 | T6 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | ∼9 × 10−6 | 10 | 138 ± 2 | 28 | Dislocation climb | Controlling Al3Sc precipitate density and size |
| AlSc + Yb, Gd [ | Sc: 0.06, Yb: 0.02 | T6 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | ∼2 × 10−8 | 31 | \ | 29 | \ | Nano-scale Al3(Sc, X) precipitates often exhibit a more stable core-shell structure |
| Sc: 0.06, Gd: 0.02 | T6 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | ∼1 × 10−5 | 37 | \ | 36 | \ |
Table 4. High-temperature creep properties, mechanisms, and strengthening mechanisms of Al-RE series alloys.
| Alloy code | Composition (wt%) | Processing condition | Creep conditions | Creep rate (s−1) | n | Q (kJ/mol) | σth (MPa) | Creep mechanism | Strengthening mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Ce [ | Ce: 12.5 | Gravity cast | 300 °C, 23 MPa | 4.7 × 10−8 | 10 | 215 ± 18 | 22 | Dislocation climb | Load transfer by Al11Ce3 phase and dislocation pinning by precipitates |
| Al-Ce-Mg [ | Ce: 9.9, Mg: 9.3 | Homogenization treatment | 350 °C, 30 MPa | ∼3 × 10−5 | 5.2 ± 0.5 | 246 ± 23 | \ | Dislocation climb | Solid solution strengthening by Mg, precipitation strengthening by Al11Ce3, and load transfer by Al11Ce3 |
| Al-Ce-Si [ | Ce:11.0 | Gravity cast | 300 °C, 30 MPa | 1.43 × 10−6 | 5.12 | \ | 1.58 | Dislocation climb | AlCeSi phase more effectively hinder dislocation motion, and Si addition promotes fibrous Al11Ce3 growth |
| Ce: 11.1, Si: 0.87 | Gravity cast | 300 °C, 30 MPa | 8.47 × 10−7 | 5.31 | \ | 3.64 | Dislocation climb | ||
| Ce: 10.6, Si: 1.71 | Gravity cast | 300 °C, 30 MPa | 3.89 × 10−7 | 5.59 | \ | 4.68 | Dislocation climb | ||
| Al-Ce-Sc [ | Ce: 12.0, Sc: 0.4 | Gravity cast (aged) | 300 °C, 70 MPa | ∼3.5 × 10−7 | 23 | \ | ∼60 | Dislocation climb | Sc-Al dipoles enhance the plastic deformability and load-bearing capacity of the Al11Ce3 phase. |
| Sub-rapid solidification (aged) | 300 °C, 80 MPa | ∼4.5 × 10−7 | 27 | \ | ∼70 | Dislocation climb | |||
| Al-Ce-Ni-Mn [ | Ce: 10.5, Ni: 3.1, Mn: 1.2 | LPBF | 300 °C, 70 MPa | ∼2.0 × 10−9 | 7 | 189-264 | 28 | Dislocation climb | The strengthening phases exhibit high thermal stability, forming multiple barriers against creep deformation |
| 350 °C, 50 MPa | ∼8.0 × 10−9 | 6 | 26 | ||||||
| 400 °C, 28 MPa | ∼5.5 × 10−8 | 12 | 18 | ||||||
| Al-Ce-Mn-Sc-Zr [ | Ce: 9.0, Mn: 0.75, Sc: 0.18, Zr: 0.12 | Gravity cast (peak-aged) | 300 °C, 70 MPa | ∼8.0 × 10−7 | 11 | \ | 47 | \ | Synergistic strengthening through multi-scale (nano-micro) and multi-type (precipitation-solid solution-composite phase) mechanisms |
| Gravity cast (overaged) | 300 °C, 70 MPa | ∼1.2 × 10−6 | 13 | \ | 51 | \ | |||
| Al-Sc [ | Sc: 0.3 | T6 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | ∼9 × 10−6 | 10 | 138 ± 2 | 28 | Dislocation climb | Controlling Al3Sc precipitate density and size |
| AlSc + Yb, Gd [ | Sc: 0.06, Yb: 0.02 | T6 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | ∼2 × 10−8 | 31 | \ | 29 | \ | Nano-scale Al3(Sc, X) precipitates often exhibit a more stable core-shell structure |
| Sc: 0.06, Gd: 0.02 | T6 | 300 °C, 40 MPa | ∼1 × 10−5 | 37 | \ | 36 | \ |
Fig. 16. Mappings representing the axial normal stresses in the matrix for (a) monolithic aluminum with an applied stress of 65 MPa, (b) monolithic aluminum with an applied stress of 100 MPa, (c) the Al/MWCNT composite with an applied stress of 65 MPa, and (d) the Al/MWCNT composite with an applied stress of 100 MPa [101].
Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of creep rupture process [105].
Fig. 18. TEM micrographs of the (a) micron-sized TiCp and (b) nano-sized TiCp in the M-1.0 + N-0.3 TiCp/Al-Cu composite [112].
| Reinforcements | Base alloys | Particle size | Content | Creep conditions | Creep rate (s−1) | n | Q (kJ/mol) | σth (MPa) | Creep mechanism | Strengthening mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MWCNTs [ | Al-7Si-0.4Mg | Diameter: 20-30 nm Length: 10-30 µm | 0.5 vol.% | 300 °C, 50 MPa | 4.8 × 10−6 | / | / | / | / | Improved dispersion and interfacial bonding; load transfer and dislocation hindrance |
| MWCNTs [ | Pure Al | / | 4.5 vol.% | 250 °C, 65-135 MPa | ∼1 × 10−7 -∼5.6 × 10−3 | 0.05, 3, 12 | / | 147 | Diffusion creep (low stress) Dislocation climb (high stress) | MWCNT-induced dislocation pileups; long-range back stress limiting atomic diffusion |
| SiC short fibers [ | Pure Al | Diameter: 10-15 µm Length: 50-200 µm | 5.3 vol.%, 11.6 vol.% | 300-500 °C, 10−7-10−1 s⁻¹ | / | 4.7 | 209 | 8.76-10.09 | Dislocation climb | High-aspect-ratio fibers enhance load transfer efficiency |
| Al2O3 [ | Al-5Mg | 13.5 µm | 10 vol.% | 400 °C, 10 MPa | ∼2 × 10−5 | 3 | 112 | 1.2 | Dislocation glide | Load transfer and dislocation hindrance by Al2O3 particles |
| ZrB2 + Al2O3 [ | Al-7.8Zn-2.1Mg-2.3Cu- | 20 nm | 3 vol.% | 300 °C, 70 MPa | 3.17 × 10⁻6 | 6.1 | 191.98 | 10.31 | Dislocation climb | Nanoparticles hinder dislocation motion, grain boundary migration, and crack propagation |
| TiB2 [ | Al-12Si | 500 nm | 10 wt% | 300 °C, ∼62.4 MPa | ∼4 × 10⁻7 | 11.7 | 265 | 23 | Dislocation climb | TiB2 nanoparticles pin dislocations and inhibit dynamic recovery |
| TiCp [ | 2618 | 0.5-1.5 µm | 20 vol.% | 300 °C, ∼145 MPa | ∼6 × 10⁻5 | 7.9 | 271.7 | 48 | Dislocation climb | Synergy of load transfer and internal back stress from TiCp particles |
| ZrB2 [ | Al-1Mg-1Si-0.8Cu | 40 nm | 3 wt% | 300 °C, 80 MPa | 7.35 × 10⁻5 | 7.8 | 172 | 28 | Dislocation climb | ZrB2 particles hinder dislocation motion and grain rotation/coarsening |
| TiCp [ | Al-5Cu | Bimodal distribution (1.88 µm + 97 nm) | 1.0 µm + 0.3 nm | 220 °C, 160 MPa | 1.05 × 10⁻7 | 8.6 | 184 | 65 | Dislocation climb | Nano-TiCp pin dislocations; Micron-TiCp suppress grain boundary sliding |
Table 5. High-temperature creep properties, mechanisms, and strengthening mechanisms of aluminum matrix composites.
| Reinforcements | Base alloys | Particle size | Content | Creep conditions | Creep rate (s−1) | n | Q (kJ/mol) | σth (MPa) | Creep mechanism | Strengthening mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MWCNTs [ | Al-7Si-0.4Mg | Diameter: 20-30 nm Length: 10-30 µm | 0.5 vol.% | 300 °C, 50 MPa | 4.8 × 10−6 | / | / | / | / | Improved dispersion and interfacial bonding; load transfer and dislocation hindrance |
| MWCNTs [ | Pure Al | / | 4.5 vol.% | 250 °C, 65-135 MPa | ∼1 × 10−7 -∼5.6 × 10−3 | 0.05, 3, 12 | / | 147 | Diffusion creep (low stress) Dislocation climb (high stress) | MWCNT-induced dislocation pileups; long-range back stress limiting atomic diffusion |
| SiC short fibers [ | Pure Al | Diameter: 10-15 µm Length: 50-200 µm | 5.3 vol.%, 11.6 vol.% | 300-500 °C, 10−7-10−1 s⁻¹ | / | 4.7 | 209 | 8.76-10.09 | Dislocation climb | High-aspect-ratio fibers enhance load transfer efficiency |
| Al2O3 [ | Al-5Mg | 13.5 µm | 10 vol.% | 400 °C, 10 MPa | ∼2 × 10−5 | 3 | 112 | 1.2 | Dislocation glide | Load transfer and dislocation hindrance by Al2O3 particles |
| ZrB2 + Al2O3 [ | Al-7.8Zn-2.1Mg-2.3Cu- | 20 nm | 3 vol.% | 300 °C, 70 MPa | 3.17 × 10⁻6 | 6.1 | 191.98 | 10.31 | Dislocation climb | Nanoparticles hinder dislocation motion, grain boundary migration, and crack propagation |
| TiB2 [ | Al-12Si | 500 nm | 10 wt% | 300 °C, ∼62.4 MPa | ∼4 × 10⁻7 | 11.7 | 265 | 23 | Dislocation climb | TiB2 nanoparticles pin dislocations and inhibit dynamic recovery |
| TiCp [ | 2618 | 0.5-1.5 µm | 20 vol.% | 300 °C, ∼145 MPa | ∼6 × 10⁻5 | 7.9 | 271.7 | 48 | Dislocation climb | Synergy of load transfer and internal back stress from TiCp particles |
| ZrB2 [ | Al-1Mg-1Si-0.8Cu | 40 nm | 3 wt% | 300 °C, 80 MPa | 7.35 × 10⁻5 | 7.8 | 172 | 28 | Dislocation climb | ZrB2 particles hinder dislocation motion and grain rotation/coarsening |
| TiCp [ | Al-5Cu | Bimodal distribution (1.88 µm + 97 nm) | 1.0 µm + 0.3 nm | 220 °C, 160 MPa | 1.05 × 10⁻7 | 8.6 | 184 | 65 | Dislocation climb | Nano-TiCp pin dislocations; Micron-TiCp suppress grain boundary sliding |
Fig. 19. Optimization strategies for creep resistance in different aluminum alloy systems.
Fig. 20. Steady-state creep rate and applied stress levels for various materials tested at 300 °C [19], [35], [38], [52], [53], [61], [65], [70], [86], [87], [105], [106], [107], [109].
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