Precipitation Behaviour at the Interface of an Additively Manufactured M789-N709 Hybrid Alloy

doi:10.1007/s40195-023-01558-z

Abstract

Abstract:

A novel hybrid alloy, designed for plastic injection dies, was fabricated by depositing M789 steel on wrought N709 steel through laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). The M789-N709 interface (with a thickness of about 300 μm) is characterized by the variation of titanium content from 0 wt% in the N709 section to about 1 wt% near the M789 region. A thermodynamic and kinetic simulation after aging treatment was performed to reveal the precipitation behavior in the M789-N709 interface. Different sizes and amounts of ETA-Ni₃(Ti,Al) strengthening precipitates exist, with a maximum volume fraction and radius of about 5% and 5 nm, respectively (near the M789 region). Moreover, the volume fraction of precipitates significantly increases with Ti additions of up to 0.6 wt% (i.e., 100 μm from the N709 region); however, beyond this threshold, the increase in the amount of precipitation becomes gradual. The thermodynamic and kinetic simulations performed in the interface are validated by electron diffraction spectroscopy (EDS), electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) and atomic probe tomography (APT) results; the measured precipitate size from the APT analysis is consistent with the simulation results. Two morphologies of precipitates were detected: elongated and spherical; both contribute to the robustness of the interface. The robust M789-N709 interface formed during the process shows good compatibility between the alloys, which is critical for extended tool life. These new insights about the precipitation at the interface of M789-N709 alloy are crucial in assessing the feasibility of N709 as a cost-effective base material to minimize the use of M789 when printing plastic injection dies.

Key words: Interface, Direct aging, Laser powder bed fusion, Diffusion, M789

Kudakwashe Nyamuchiwa, Yuan Tian, Kanwal Chadha, Lu Jiang, Thomas Dorin, Clodualdo Aranas Jr. Precipitation Behaviour at the Interface of an Additively Manufactured M789-N709 Hybrid Alloy[J]. Acta Metallurgica Sinica (English Letters), 2023, 36(8): 1353-1370.

Figures/Tables 20

Table 1 Chemical compositions of the M789 powder and N709 steel (in wt%)

Steel	C	Cr	Ni	Mo	Al	Ti	Fe
M789	< 0.02	12.20	10.00	1.00	0.60	1.00	Balance
N709	0.03	12.70	8.10	2.20	1.10	-	Balance

Fig. 1 Compositional gradient of the as-printed M789-N709 alloy is presented: a, b EPMA and EDS analysis of Al, Ti, and Mo, c, d EPMA and EDS analysis of Cr and Ni, e schematic of the compositional gradient change of mixed deposited layers

Fig. 2 Compositional gradient of the directly aged M789-N709 alloy is presented: a, b EPMA and EDS analysis of Al, Ti, and Mo; c, d EPMA and EDS analysis of Cr and Ni

Fig. 3 EBSD results showing: a grain boundary, b phase maps associated with the as-printed M789-N709 hybrid system, and c mechanism for nucleation at the interface

Fig. 4 EBSD results showing: a grain boundary, b phase maps associated with the directly aged M789-N709 hybrid system

Fig. 5 KAM map obtained from as-printed M789-N709 hybrid alloy

Fig. 6 KAM map obtained from directly aged M789-N709 hybrid alloy

Fig. 7 Pole figures of the: a M789, b M789-N709 interface, c N709 sections in the as-printed state

Fig. 8 Pole figures of the: a M789, b M789-N709 interface, c N709 sections in the directly aged state

Fig. 9 Measured variation of Ti content in the interface of M789 and N709

Fig. 10 Simulated evolution of precipitates with change in Ti composition across the interface using the experimentally measured titanium content

Fig. 11 ETA-Ni3(Ti, Al) (η-phase) evolution with Ti change at the interface from 0 wt% to 0.722 wt%

Fig. 12 ETA-Ni3(Ti, Al) (η-phase) evolution with Ti change at the interface from 0.7839 wt% to 0.9725 wt%

Fig. 13 ETA-Ni3(Ti, Al) (η-phase) evolution with Ti change at the interface from 0.9929 wt% to 1.0194 wt%

Fig. 14 Dependence of ETA-Ni3(Ti, Al) and B2 phase on the Ti content in the interface after aging treatment

Fig. 15 a Nano hardness before direct aging, b nano hardness after aging, c the size of ETA-Ni3(Ti,Al) precipitate in the interface, including the corresponding Ti content

Fig. 16 EDS map revealing the formation of the precipitate showing the distribution of: a Ti, b Ni, c Al, d Mo

Fig. 17 Atom probe tomography (APT) results display the distribution and morphology of precipitates close to the M789 region

Fig. 18 Atom probe tomography results showing: a atomic map of Ni with 17.5 at.% Ni iso-concentration surface (elongated plates), b atomic map with 21 at.% Ni iso-concentration surface (spherical)

Fig. 19 Frequency distribution plot associated with the measured radius of precipitates from the atom probe tomography (APT) analysis in Fig. 18

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