Application of electromagnetic fields in separation, purification, refining, and crystal growth processes of metallic materials: A review

doi:10.1016/j.metadv.2026.07.003

Abstract

Abstract:

The application of electromagnetic fields in materials separation, refining, and purification processes has emerged as a powerful strategy for achieving high-purity crystalline materials and enhancing electrochemical performance. This review comprehensively examines the role of steady (vertical, horizontal, cusp) and non-steady (rotating, alternating, traveling) magnetic fields in controlling melt convection during bulk crystal growth, zone refining, melt purification and electrolytic refining. In crystal growth techniques such as Czochralski, vertical Bridgman, and floating zone methods, magnetic fields suppress turbulent flow, stabilize thermal transport, and improve dopant and impurity distribution. They enable precise control over defect densities and segregation behavior, critical for semiconductor-grade materials. In zone refining, electromagnetic stirring enhances impurity segregation kinetics, while container-free techniques like electromagnetic suspension minimize contamination. In melt purification, magnetic fields have shown high efficacy in purifying molten metals by removing non-metallic inclusions. In electroslag remelting, external magnetic fields refine droplets, shallow metal pools, and reduce segregation. For electrolytic refining, magnetic fields induce Lorentz force and Kelvin force, improving mass transport, reducing concentration polarization, and modifying deposit morphology. Notably, gradient magnetic fields exploit differences in magnetic susceptibility for selective separation of rare earth ions and organometallic compounds, achieving high-purity enrichment through crystallization and precipitation strategies. The integration of hybrid field configurations and advanced numerical models further optimizes process efficiency and material homogeneity. These advancements underscore the broad utility of electromagnetic fields in enabling next-generation materials purification, with applications spanning semiconductors, metals, and critical rare earth elements. Future efforts should focus on real-time control and scalability for industrial adoption.

Key words: Electromagnetic field, High-purity crystalline materials, Separation, Purification, Refining, Crystal growth

Wenhao Lin, Bangfei Zhou, Zhe Shen, Biao Ding, Qiang Li, Zhongze Lin, Weili Ren, Tianxiang Zheng, Yunbo Zhong. Application of electromagnetic fields in separation, purification, refining, and crystal growth processes of metallic materials: A review[J]. Metals Advances, 2026, 48: 59-85.

Figures/Tables 19

Fig. 1. Diagram of the outline in this review [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36].

Fig. 2. Classification and introduction of magnetic fields: (a) Various types of magnetic ﬁeld arrangements in materials separation, refining and purification processes [30]; (b) CMF magnet (upper) and the distribution of magnetic field (lower) [42]; (c) RMF magnet (upper) [35] and the principle of RMF (lower) [43]; (d) TMF magnet (upper) [44] and the principle of TMF (lower) [41].

Fig. 3. Various types of magnetic ﬁeld effects: (a) Principle of high-frequency induction heating [45]; (b) Illustration of the TEMF effects [51]; (c) Illustration of the KF [55].

Fig. 4. Principle and schematic of phase separation under different magnetic field: (a) Forces exerted on primary phase under a combined static magnetic field and DC and macrostructure of the casting section [56]. (b) Schematic diagram of the experimental setup and cross section of a typical sample (Al-45wt%Si alloy at a pulling rate of 7 µm/s) [57]. (c1) Sample in the resistance furnace [58]; (c2) Sample in the induction furnace (with 3 kHz magnetic field) [58]. (d1) Mn-89.7wt%Sb, 0 T; (d2) Mn-89.7wt%Sb, BdB/dz=282 T2/m and a holding time of 30 min [62]. (e1) Schematic illustration of Al-30wt%Si alloy solidified under an RMF; (e2) 0 mT；(e3) 25 mT RMF [63]. (f1) Configuration of the combined magnetic system; (f2) Macrostructure of the longitudinal sections of the solidified samples under 0 T; (f3) Macrostructure of the longitudinal sections of the solidified samples under TMF (110 A, 50 Hz) and RMF (25 A, 40 Hz) [68].

Fig. 5. Principles and schematic diagrams of melt purification under different magnetic fields: (a) Principle of EM separation of inclusions from the melt [71], [89]; (b) Removal inclusions from liquid metal using a fixed AMF [81]; (c) Separating inclusions from molten metal using a TMF [86].

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic diagram of MC-ESR process [105] and (b) purification comparison. Spatial distribution results of the number and size of the four-layer inclusions detected in ESR ingots under different experimental parameters: 600 A‐0 mT (left) and 600 A‐50 mT (right), respectively [107].

Fig. 7. (a) The radius of RE(III). (b) The magnetic moment of RE(III) [114]. (c) Movement of transition-metal ions on silica gel support [116]. The metal ion solutions were spotted at the 0-mm position that was 100 mm from the field center.

Fig. 8. Magnetic separation of RE elements: (a) Magnetic migration of Dy(III), Gd(III) and Y(III) with GMF [125]; (b) Sketch of the magnetic separation principle [126]; (c) The correspondence between average velocity and magnetic susceptibility [127].

Fig. 9. The mechanisms and effects of magnetic fields in the separation of elements: (a) The mechanism of magnetic fields in the separation of Re elements (b) Photographs of [Tm(TriNOx)] crystals forming in the presence of a magnetic field [131]; (c) Schematic diagram of the extraction mechanism for Ga and Ge under a magnetic field [133]; (d) Effect of different magnetic flux densities on the enrichment of Ga and Ge [133].

Fig. 10. The influence of a uniform magnetic field on electrochemical deposition: (a) Schematic of convection of electrolyte without a magnetic field [135]; (b) Schematic of convection of electrolyte with a magnetic field [135]; (c) The electrode surface after depositing 3 mAh cm−2 Li at a current density of 15 cm−2 with or without a 50 mT magnetic field [144]; (d) The copper films electrodeposited at the cathode potential of −400 mV vs. Cu reference electrode in various magnetic field intensities [160].

Fig. 11. The influence of GMF on electrochemical reaction: (a) Pattern of concentration of dissolved iron ions around a small iron sphere corroding in 5% HNO3 in an imposed magnetic field and the iron concentration profile follows a contour of magnetic field [162]; (b) Patterned electrodeposits on copper or silver cathodes above hexagonal arrays of 2 mm cylindrical magnets and the calculated stray field pattern at the cathode is shown on the right [141].

Fig. 12. (a) Schematic of floating-zone processes used for silicon single-crystal growth [21]; (b) Setup for electromagnetic suspension of a molten zone [186]. (c) Optical micrographs of crystals grown with and without RMF [187].

Fig. 13. Crystal preparation under VMF: (a) Schematic representation of a VMF configuration; (b) Schematic depiction of the solute suppression nucleation caused by the solute diffusion boundary created by growing grains [206]; (c) 3D reconstructions of Al‐12.4at.%Cu alloys solidified with a constant cooling rate of 5 K/min under various MFDs [206].

Fig. 14. The effect of CMF configurations on flow velocities and growth striations: (a) the center of the CMF positioned 20 mm above the melt-free surface (outside); (b) Center of the CMF positioned at the melt-free surface (surface); (c) Center of the CMF positioned 20 mm below the melt-free surface [221].

Fig. 15. Crystal preparation under RMF: (a) Si-Sb crystal: “as grown’’ (left) and a composite NDIC micrograph after cutting, polishing and etching (middle); The micro-segregation (striation pattern) changes significantly upon application of the RMF (right) [235]; (b) The impurity concentration distribution on the growth interface at t=1060 s under different magnetic flux densities [236]; (c) Influence of an RMF on the growth interface shape. The RMF decreases the concavity and induces a w-shape [230].

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of the effect of AMF on the molten silicon and the concentration distributions of Fe, Ni, Ti and Cu in different positions of the two silicon ingots [242].

Fig. 17. (a) Principle of electromagnetic levitation [243]; (b) Typical cooling curves [244]; (c) Measured growth velocity of primary phase versus undercooling [249]. Microstructures of hypereutectic Ni-13at.%Zr alloy solidified at different undercoolings: (d) ΔT=36 K; (e) ΔT=180 K; (f) ΔT=270 K [249].

Fig. 18. Striation analysis on microscopic scale taken from longitudinal cuts of different as-grown 4-inch VGF Ge crystals grown: (a) without magnetic field, (b) under nearly optimized TMF parameters [30]. Global numeric simulation of the TMF effect in a Ge melt with diameter of 100 mm in the VGF equipment: (c) Stream lines of buoyancy flow without TMF and interface shape within the left half cylinder, causing an undesirable concave interface curvature; (d) stream contour in a downward translating TMF and interface shape within the right half cylinder produced by the heater-magnet at f=20 Hz and φ=60°. A favourable convex interface is obtained [41].

Table 1. Summary of magnetic field applications for separation, purification, refining, and crystal growth processes.

Types	Applications	Examples	Key findings	References
SMF	Electroslag remelting; Crystal growth; Zone refining	GCr15 bearing steel; Si; InSb; Ge; Al-Cu alloy; GaAs; Cu, Co, Ni (electrodeposition)	Droplet refinement, structure homogenization, purification; Stabilize interfaces, improve crystalline uniformity; Suppress thermocapillary convection.	[38], [39], [40], [197], [199], [200], [205], [206], [216], [217]
GMF	Phase separation; Element enrichment; Electrolytic refining	Mn-Sb alloy; RE Ions; Oxygen; Ga and Ge (enrichment)	Enabling direct control based on magnetic susceptibility.	[61], [62], [116], [117], [118], [119], [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125], [126], [127], [128], [129], [130], [131], [132], [133], [162], [163], [164], [165], [166], [167], [168], [169]
RMF	Phase separation; Melt purification; Crystal growth; Zone refining	Al-Si alloy, Al-Si-Cu alloy, Si (purification); Al and Mg (inclusion removal); Cu, Ge, Si, GaAs, SiSb (crystal growth)	Suppressing temperature fluctuations and enhancing mixing; Provide a versatile and energy-efficient means to tailor melt convection, suppress defects, and improve crystal homogeneity across various growth techniques.	[63], [64], [65], [66], [67], [100], [101], [227], [228], [229], [230], [231], [232], [233], [234], [235], [236]
TMF	Melt purification; Crystal growth	Al-Si-Cu alloy, Al and Mg melt (purification); Si, Ge, InP (Crystal growth)	Separating inclusions from molten metal; Precisely control melt convection and enhance crystal quality.	[68], [84], [87], [88], [255], [256], [257], [258], [259], [260], [261]
CMF	Crystal growth	Si, Ge (Cz growth); Si-Ge crystal	Suppressing thermal instabilities; Enhancing field strength near the solid-liquid interface and improving dopant uniformity.	[216], [217], [218], [219], [220], [221], [222], [223], [224], [225]
LF	Induction heating; Melt purification; Electrolytic refining	Al-Si alloys; Si; Al and Mg melts (purification); Cu, Co, Ni (electrodeposition); Si, InSb, Ge (crystal growth)	Allowing turbulence suppression, interface stabilization, and melt stirring to refine solidification structures.	[45], [46], [47], [56], [57], [58], [59], [60], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75], [76], [77], [78], [79], [80], [81], [82], [83], [135], [136], [137], [138], [139], [140], [141], [142], [143], [144], [145], [146], [147], [148], [149], [150], [151], [152], [153], [154], [155], [156], [157], [158], [159], [160], [161]
KF	Electrolytic refining; Element enrichment	Rare earth ions; Oxygen; Cu, Co, Ni (electrodeposition);	Acting on magnetic susceptibility differences, enabling selective separation of particles and solutes.	[29], [116], [117], [118], [119], [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125], [126], [127], [128], [129], [130], [131], [132], [133], [162], [163], [164], [165], [166], [167], [168], [169]
TEMF	Microstructure evolution; Electroslag remelting	GCr15 bearing steel; Metals/semiconductors under thermal gradients	Inducing localized fluid flow in molten metals or semiconductors, influencing dendrite morphology, promoting grain refinement, and facilitating the migration of secondary phases and impurities.	[49], [50], [51], [52], [53]

Table 1. Summary of magnetic field applications for separation, purification, refining, and crystal growth processes.

Types	Applications	Examples	Key findings	References
SMF	Electroslag remelting; Crystal growth; Zone refining	GCr15 bearing steel; Si; InSb; Ge; Al-Cu alloy; GaAs; Cu, Co, Ni (electrodeposition)	Droplet refinement, structure homogenization, purification; Stabilize interfaces, improve crystalline uniformity; Suppress thermocapillary convection.	[38], [39], [40], [197], [199], [200], [205], [206], [216], [217]
GMF	Phase separation; Element enrichment; Electrolytic refining	Mn-Sb alloy; RE Ions; Oxygen; Ga and Ge (enrichment)	Enabling direct control based on magnetic susceptibility.	[61], [62], [116], [117], [118], [119], [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125], [126], [127], [128], [129], [130], [131], [132], [133], [162], [163], [164], [165], [166], [167], [168], [169]
RMF	Phase separation; Melt purification; Crystal growth; Zone refining	Al-Si alloy, Al-Si-Cu alloy, Si (purification); Al and Mg (inclusion removal); Cu, Ge, Si, GaAs, SiSb (crystal growth)	Suppressing temperature fluctuations and enhancing mixing; Provide a versatile and energy-efficient means to tailor melt convection, suppress defects, and improve crystal homogeneity across various growth techniques.	[63], [64], [65], [66], [67], [100], [101], [227], [228], [229], [230], [231], [232], [233], [234], [235], [236]
TMF	Melt purification; Crystal growth	Al-Si-Cu alloy, Al and Mg melt (purification); Si, Ge, InP (Crystal growth)	Separating inclusions from molten metal; Precisely control melt convection and enhance crystal quality.	[68], [84], [87], [88], [255], [256], [257], [258], [259], [260], [261]
CMF	Crystal growth	Si, Ge (Cz growth); Si-Ge crystal	Suppressing thermal instabilities; Enhancing field strength near the solid-liquid interface and improving dopant uniformity.	[216], [217], [218], [219], [220], [221], [222], [223], [224], [225]
LF	Induction heating; Melt purification; Electrolytic refining	Al-Si alloys; Si; Al and Mg melts (purification); Cu, Co, Ni (electrodeposition); Si, InSb, Ge (crystal growth)	Allowing turbulence suppression, interface stabilization, and melt stirring to refine solidification structures.	[45], [46], [47], [56], [57], [58], [59], [60], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75], [76], [77], [78], [79], [80], [81], [82], [83], [135], [136], [137], [138], [139], [140], [141], [142], [143], [144], [145], [146], [147], [148], [149], [150], [151], [152], [153], [154], [155], [156], [157], [158], [159], [160], [161]
KF	Electrolytic refining; Element enrichment	Rare earth ions; Oxygen; Cu, Co, Ni (electrodeposition);	Acting on magnetic susceptibility differences, enabling selective separation of particles and solutes.	[29], [116], [117], [118], [119], [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125], [126], [127], [128], [129], [130], [131], [132], [133], [162], [163], [164], [165], [166], [167], [168], [169]
TEMF	Microstructure evolution; Electroslag remelting	GCr15 bearing steel; Metals/semiconductors under thermal gradients	Inducing localized fluid flow in molten metals or semiconductors, influencing dendrite morphology, promoting grain refinement, and facilitating the migration of secondary phases and impurities.	[49], [50], [51], [52], [53]

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