Recent advances in 3D printing of metallic component-containing bone repairing materials

doi:10.1016/j.metadv.2026.02.009

Abstract

Abstract:

Although conventional metallic prostheses made through casting, forging and numerically controlled machining have been widely used to treat bone defects for permanent or long-term replacement, their insufficient model supply, mismatched mechanical properties, limited surface topographical features and inadequate osseointegration restrict their further wide use. Three-dimensional (3D) printing has emerged as a transformative technology to manufacture metal and metallic component-containing biomaterials into personalized prosthesis implants and bone regeneration scaffolds with tailored architectures, tunable mechanical strength and desirable biological responses. This mini-review introduces recent advances in 3D printed metallic bulk/porous prosthesis and metallic-component containing ceramic and/or polymeric composite scaffolds for bone repair/regeneration. The physical, chemical and biological requirements of 3D printed metallic-component containing bone repairing materials including bulk/porous prostheses for bone tissue replacement with/without bone in growth and biodegradable scaffolds for bone regeneration are presented. Afterwards, material selection principles for producing different types of metallic components containing bone repairing materials are compared. Then, core 3D printing technologies and post-treatment methods are reviewed. Subsequently, typical application cases using 3D printed bone repairing materials/scaffolds are sequentially discussed. Despite encouraging progress, multifunctional metallic component containing bone repairing materials/scaffolds should be continuously developed to simultaneously present biomimetic structural features, suitable mechanical properties, appropriate degradation rate, excellent functional agent delivery capability and desirable biological performance to elicit improved osseointegration, enhanced vascularization, excellent antibacterial/anti-inflammation capability. In addition, translational barriers such as standardization, large-scale manufacturing, and regulatory approval should be also resolved.

Key words: 3D printing, Metallic component, Bone repairing material

Minquan Xiong, Linghui Zeng, Wenwu Ruan, Yiyan Qiu, Xinliang Ye, Weiwei Zhang, Chong Wang, Min Wang. Recent advances in 3D printing of metallic component-containing bone repairing materials[J]. Metals Advances, 2026, 41: 55-71.

Figures/Tables 8

Fig. 1. Common metallic prostheses and scaffolds for bone repair: (a) 3D printed jaw prosthesis [24]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2019 MDPI. (b) 3D printed pelvic acetabular fracture fixation plate [21]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2023 Springer Nature. (c) 3D printed ankle joint prosthesis [23]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2020 Springer Nature. (d) 3D printed shoulder joint prosthesis [25]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2024 Frontiers. (e) 3D printed clavicle prosthesis [26]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (f) 3D Printed porous Ti interbody fusion cages [27]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2023 Elsevier. (g) 3D printed scaffold for femoral repair [28]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2023 Springer Nature.

Table 1. Physical, chemical and biological requirements of different types of 3D printed metallic component-containing bone repairing materials.

Category	Bulk metallic prostheses	Porous metallic prostheses	Metallic component-containing ceramic/polymeric composite scaffolds
Main purpose	Permanent bone replacement (e.g., joint prostheses, large defect filling)	Long-term implantation (allowing bone tissue ingrowth)	Guiding bone regeneration (scaffolds are fully replaced by new bone eventually)
Structure	Dense, non-porous; anatomical customization possible	High porosity; interconnected pores; trabecular-like structure	High porosity, interconnected pores; biomimetic design
Mechanical requirements	Requires high strength, toughness, fatigue and wear resistance; requires stable long-term fixation	Requires medium to high strength with reduced modulus (comparable to cancellous/cortical bone); requires fatigue resistance	Requires low to medium strength (comparable to cancellous bone) for initial support (strength decreases with degradation)
Chemical requirements	Requires high corrosion resistance (can be achieved by surface passivation and formation of stable oxide layers on surface)	Requires medium to high corrosion resistance (can be achieved by surface modification such as HAp deposition, anodization, ion doping which improves bioactivity)	Requires controlled degradation to match bone healing; degradation products must be biocompatible (Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺); pH environment should be balanced
Biological requirements	Requires excellent biocompatibility; enhanced osseointegration can be achieved by surface roughening or coatings	Requires excellent biocompatibility, bone ingrowth, osseointegration and antibacterial property (can be achieved by providing osteoconductivity/osteoinductivity and antibacterial property)	Requires excellent biocompatibility, osteogenesis, angiogenesis and immune modulation (can be achieved by tuning osteoconductivity/osteoinductivity and angiogenesis property)
Clinical limitations	Stress shielding; risk of loosening or wear particle-induced osteolysis	Possible fatigue failure	Unmatched velocity between scaffold degradation and bone regeneration; insufficient initial mechanical stability

Table 1. Physical, chemical and biological requirements of different types of 3D printed metallic component-containing bone repairing materials.

Category	Bulk metallic prostheses	Porous metallic prostheses	Metallic component-containing ceramic/polymeric composite scaffolds
Main purpose	Permanent bone replacement (e.g., joint prostheses, large defect filling)	Long-term implantation (allowing bone tissue ingrowth)	Guiding bone regeneration (scaffolds are fully replaced by new bone eventually)
Structure	Dense, non-porous; anatomical customization possible	High porosity; interconnected pores; trabecular-like structure	High porosity, interconnected pores; biomimetic design
Mechanical requirements	Requires high strength, toughness, fatigue and wear resistance; requires stable long-term fixation	Requires medium to high strength with reduced modulus (comparable to cancellous/cortical bone); requires fatigue resistance	Requires low to medium strength (comparable to cancellous bone) for initial support (strength decreases with degradation)
Chemical requirements	Requires high corrosion resistance (can be achieved by surface passivation and formation of stable oxide layers on surface)	Requires medium to high corrosion resistance (can be achieved by surface modification such as HAp deposition, anodization, ion doping which improves bioactivity)	Requires controlled degradation to match bone healing; degradation products must be biocompatible (Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺); pH environment should be balanced
Biological requirements	Requires excellent biocompatibility; enhanced osseointegration can be achieved by surface roughening or coatings	Requires excellent biocompatibility, bone ingrowth, osseointegration and antibacterial property (can be achieved by providing osteoconductivity/osteoinductivity and antibacterial property)	Requires excellent biocompatibility, osteogenesis, angiogenesis and immune modulation (can be achieved by tuning osteoconductivity/osteoinductivity and angiogenesis property)
Clinical limitations	Stress shielding; risk of loosening or wear particle-induced osteolysis	Possible fatigue failure	Unmatched velocity between scaffold degradation and bone regeneration; insufficient initial mechanical stability

Fig. 2. (A) SS scaffold prepared by SLM [71]: (a, b) Digital image and SEM micrograph of the 316L SS scaffold; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2017 IOP Publishing. (B) SEM micrographs and digital image of the porous structured Ti scaffolds [79]: (a-c) SEM micrographs of porous Ti scaffold at different magnifications. (d) Digital image of the 3D printed porous scaffold with varied macroscopic pore size; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2019 Elsevier. (C) Characterization of Ta alloy and Ti6Al4V alloy scaffolds [93]: (a) Digital image of porous Ta and porous Ti6Al4V scaffolds used for in vitro experiments. (b) SEM micrographs of Ta alloy and Ti6Al4V scaffold samples with varied magnification; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2018 ACS. (D) (a) Design process of the bionic beetle structure. (b) Composite bionic scaffold with varied porosity [105]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2025 Elsevier. (E) Digital image and SEM micrograph of Zn alloy scaffold [130]: (a) Macroscopic morphology of the Zn scaffold. (b) SEM micrographs of Zn alloy scaffold; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2024 Elsevier. (F) Schematic diagram of the bionic multi-scale micro/nano-porous Fe scaffolds coated with HAp nanosheets for vascularized bone regeneration [138]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2025 ACS.

Fig. 3. (A) JDBM scaffold and JDBM/Sr-OCP composite scaffold: (a) Scaffold morphology. (b) Live/dead cell staining of human BMSCs (hBMSCs) (red cells represent dead cells, and green cells represent live cells). (c) Live/dead cell staining of HUVECs. (d) Statistical analysis of wound healing. (e, f) The mRNA expression of CD31 and VEGF [145]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2025 Springer Nature. (B) The combination of supramolecular hydrogels with dual functions of antibacterial activity and osteogenic induction with 3D printed porous Ti scaffolds was used for the treatment of infectious bone defects [150]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2020 SAGE Publications.

Fig. 4. (A) (a) Digital images of the PLLA scaffolds with different amounts of Zn-doped mesoporous silica prepared by SLS. (b, c) SEM images of the tensile brittle fracture surface of the composite scaffolds. (d) Results of water contact angle of the composite scaffolds [160]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2021 AccScience Publishing. (B) (a) Overall appearance of PLLA scaffold, mesoporous BG/PLLA scaffold and Ag doped-mesoporous BG PLLA scaffold. (b) Cryo-fractured surface of different scaffolds. (c) The compressive stress-strain curves of the composite scaffolds. (d) Compressive strength and modulus of composite scaffolds. (e) Water contact angle of different scaffolds [161]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2021 Elsevier. (C) Schematic diagram of 3D printing of the dual-functional bone scaffolds with the capabilities to release Fe3+ and Mg2+ ions to kill residual tumor cells via combined photothermal therapy/chemodynamic therapy and induce bone regeneration via synergistic effect of Mg2+ ion release and presence of β-TCP particles [162]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2021 Wiley. (D) Schematic diagram of 3D printed CuNP/CPC scaffolds with osteoinductivity, antibacterial property and angiogenic capability for enhanced bone regeneration [163]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2023 MDPI.

Table 2. Printing accuracy, material matrices, post-processing, object structure, mechanical performance and application scenario of objects manufactured via different 3D printing processes.

Technology	SLS	SLM	Micro extrusion
Material matrix	Ti and Ti alloy, Al alloy, polymers and ceramics [164], [166]	Ti alloy, CoCr alloy, SS, Mg-Zn alloy, pure Ta [189], [190]	High molecular weight polymers containing ceramic and metallic components [191]
Printing accuracy	0.1-0.2 mm [192]	0.05-0.1 mm [193], [194]	0.2-0.4 mm [195], [196]
Post-processing complexity	Medium to high (remove powder from the surface and internal holes, may reduce surface roughness after treatment) [71], [166]	Medium to high (remove powder from the surface and internal holes, cut object from substrate, grounding) [166], [197]	Low to medium (remove supporting structure after solidification) [196], [198]
Mechanical property	Medium to high (depending on type of material matrix) [199]	High (may lead to stress shielding) [197]	Low to medium (depending on the strength of matrix material) [200], [201]
Structural complexity of printed object	Medium to high (complex porous structure requiring no supporting structure)	Medium to high (complex porous structure requiring no supporting structure)	Low to medium (complex porous structure requiring additional supporting structure)
Application scenarios	Bone replacement, bone regeneration at skull, facial and limb sites [202], [203]	Supporting frames/prostheses suitable for the spine, joints and other parts at load bearing sites [204], [205]	Simulation models, and bone regeneration induction at non-load bearing sites [206]

Fig. 5. (A) Schematic diagram of SLS [207]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2023 MDPI. (B) Several common micro extrusion-based 3D printing (ME3DP) methods: (a) Piston-driven ME3DP. (b) Screw-driven ME3DP. (c) Pneumatic-driven ME3DP. (d) FDM. (C) Surface modification methods [179]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2023 MDPI. (D) Schematic illustration of LSR treatment [187]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2023 Elsevier.

Fig. 6. (A) The digital model and digital image of 3D printed porous Ta prosthesis and the postoperative X-ray images after implantation in a 58-year-old male patient following extended resection of a distal radius osteosarcoma [211]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2021 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. (B) Digital images of the mandibular reconstruction prosthetic tray, preoperative simulation, intraoperative observation and postoperative CT images [214]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2017 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. (C) Schematic diagram of cryogenic 3D printing of Mg-containing TCP/PLGA bone tissue engineering scaffolds for enhanced bone tissue regeneration and angiogenesis [228]; Reproduced with permission from Copyright 2019 Elsevier.

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