Fig. 1 Experimental procedure for the hot compression test

Fig. 2 True stress–strain curves of CSS-42L bearing steel deformed at 900–1100 °C with strain rates ($\dot{\varepsilon }$) of a 0.1, b 1, c 10 and d 20 s−1, respectively

Fig. 3 Peak stress during hot deformation of CSS-42L bearing steel at various hot deformation conditions

Fig. 4 Effects of the a deformation temperature, b strain rate on the peak stress during hot deformation of CSS-42L bearing steel

Fig. 5 Linear relationships of a lnσ-ln $\dot{\varepsilon }$, b σ-ln $\dot{\varepsilon }$, c ln[sinh(ασ)]-ln $\dot{\varepsilon }$, d ln[sinh(ασ)]-1000/T and e lnZ-ln[sinh(ασ)]

Fig. 6 Comparison between measured and predicted peak stress

Fig. 7 a Zener-Hollomon parameter (Z) map at the true strain of 0.7 and b the linear relationship between lnZ and the flow stress at the true strain of 0.7

Fig. 8 Power dissipation maps of CSS-42L bearing steel at true strains of a 0.4, b 0.5, c 0.6 and d 0.7, respectively

Fig. 9 Flow instability maps of CSS-42L bearing steel at true strains of a 0.4, b 0.5, c 0.6 and d 0.7, respectively

Fig. 10 SEM images showing the microstructure of CSS-42L bearing steel under various hot deformation conditions

Fig. 11 a1-d1 IPF maps, a2-d2 the enlarged views of rectangle regions, a3-d3 the enlarged views of elliptical regions in IPF maps, and a4-d4 the corresponding misorientation distribution along the black arrows marked in the enlarged maps a3-d3 of samples under the hot deformation conditions of a 900 °C/20 s−1, b 1000 °C/0.1 s−1, c 1100 °C/0.1 s−1, and d 1100 °C/20 s−1, respectively

Fig. 12 TEM images showing the as-quenched microstructure of the studied steel under the hot deformation conditions of a 900 °C/20 s−1, b 1100 °C/0.1 s−1, respectively

Fig. 13 Frequency of LAGB, MAGB and HAGB in the studied steel under the hot deformation conditions of 900 °C/20 s−1, 1000 °C/0.1 s−1, 1100 °C/0.1 s−1, and 1100 °C/20 s−1, respectively

Fig. 14 GOS maps of the studied steel under the hot deformation conditions of a 900 °C/20 s−1, b 1000 °C/0.1 s−1, c 1100 °C/0.1 s−1, and d 1100 °C/20 s−1, respectively, e frequency of recrystallized, recovered and deformed grains and f relative frequency of KAM in the above four samples