Additive manufactured graded porous zinc scaffolds based on sheet-Gyroid lattice for bone defect repair

doi:10.1016/j.metadv.2026.02.012

Abstract

Abstract:

Balancing degradation rate with mechanical stability represents a critical challenge in the development of biodegradable porous scaffolds. Functionally graded triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structures offer a novel strategy for designing biodegradable zinc (Zn) scaffolds for bone implants. Through gradient designs that mimic the anisotropic structures of natural bone, scaffold permeability, mechanical support, and biocompatibility can be harmonized, thereby satisfying the requirements of an ideal bone substitute. In this work, three uniform and six functionally graded porous Zn scaffolds were fabricated using laser powder bed fusion (L‐PBF). Their mechanical properties, biodegradation behavior, and biocompatibility were systematically investigated. The results demonstrate that porous Zn scaffolds with the sheet-Gyroid unit cell exhibit uniform corrosion and maintain high mechanical integrity throughout dynamic biodegradation. At the same porosity, radially graded scaffolds exhibited larger deformability than longitudinally graded ones. Furthermore, the interconnected topological microenvironment provided by the sheet-Gyroid TPMS structure promotes cell adhesion and proliferation, indicating its potential to facilitate bone defect repair.

Key words: Additively manufacturing, Sheet-networks Gyroid lattice, Functionally graded porous scaffold, Biodegradable zinc, Bone defect repair

Zexin Liu, Kun Chen, Wei Luo, Yifan Ren, Kang Wang, Yuyu Zhao, Lin Liu, Ruiyue Hang, Zeqin Cui, Yang Gao, Runhua Yao, Ruiqiang Hang, Xiaohong Yao. Additive manufactured graded porous zinc scaffolds based on sheet-Gyroid lattice for bone defect repair[J]. Metals Advances, 2026, 43: 57-68.

Figures/Tables 7

Fig. 1. Topological designs of the porous Zn scaffolds. (a) Schematic illustrations of the sheet- network and solid-network Gyroid unit cells. (b) Variation curve of pore size with wall thickness for a 2.5 mm sheet-network Gyroid unit cell. (c) Functionally graded porous scaffolds design.

Fig. 2. Morphologies and characteristics of L-PBF porous Zn scaffolds. (a) Micro-CT reconstructions images. (b) Microscopic morphology after surface treatment and (c) porosity.

Fig. 3. Compressive mechanical properties of L-PBF porous Zn scaffolds. (a) Deformation progression at different compressive strain levels. (b) Cross-sectional stress distribution from finite element analysis. (c) Compressive stress-strain curves. (d) Compressive strength and elastic modulus (*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, “ns” indicates no significance).

Fig. 4. Biodegradation behavior of porous Zn scaffolds in r-SBF under static and dynamic conditions. (a) Surface morphologies after 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 d of immersion. (b) Static corrosion rates. (c) pH values of r-SBF during static immersion. (d) Dynamic corrosion rates. (e) Weight loss percentage of the scaffold after 28 d.

Fig. 5. (a) Microscopic morphology of biodegradation products on L-PBF porous Zn scaffolds. (b) Surface and 3D morphologies of samples after 28 d of biodegradation. (c) XRD pattern of the degradation products. (d) Compressive strength loss percentage after 14 and 28 d of dynamic biodegradation. (*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, “ns” indicates no significance).

Fig. 6. MC3T3-E1 cells activity assessment of different porous Zn scaffolds. (a) The MTT results of MC3T3-E1 cells cultured for 1, 3, and 5 d in the different extract concentrations (from sample P11) (*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, “ns” indicates no significance). (b) The MTT results of MC3T3-E1 cells cultured in 25% extracts for 1, 3, and 5 d (@p<0.05 compared to P7, #p<0.05 compared to P9, $p<0.05 compared to P11, %p<0.05 compared to P7-9, &p<0.05 compared to P9-11, “ns” indicates no significance). (c) Zn2+ concentration released after 24-hour immersion (@p<0.05 compared to P7, #p<0.05 compared to P9, $p<0.05 compared to P11, %p<0.05 compared to P7-9, &p<0.05 compared to P9-11, “ns” indicates no significance). (d) Live/dead staining of MC3T3-E1 cells cultured in 25% extracts for 1, 3, and 5 d. (e) Live/dead staining of MC3T3-E1 cells directly cultured on different scaffolds for 48 h. (f) Morphologies of MC3T3-E1 cells after 48 h of direct culture on scaffolds (from sample P9).

Fig. 7. HUVECs activity assessment of different porous Zn scaffolds. (a) Live/dead fluorescence images of HUVECs cultured in 25% extracts for 1, 3, and 5 d. (b) The MTT results of HUVECs cells cultured in 25% extracts for 1, 3, and 5 d (@p<0.05 compared to Blank, #p<0.05 compared to P7, $p<0.05 compared to P9, %p<0.05 compared to P11, &p<0.05 compared to P7-9, *p<0.05 compared to P9-11, “ns” indicates no significance). (c) HUVECs cells migration rate cultured in 25% extracts after 12 and 24 h (@p<0.05 compared to Blank, #p<0.05 compared to P7, $p<0.05 compared to P9, %p<0.05 compared to P11, &p<0.05 compared to P7-9, *p<0.05 compared to P9-11, “ns” indicates no significance). (d) Migration images of HUVECs cells at 0, 12, and 24 h.

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