Research progress of high-porosity biomedical porous titanium alloys

doi:10.1016/j.metadv.2026.02.003

Abstract

Abstract:

Highly porous titanium alloys have emerged as a focal point of research in the field of bone repair and replacement materials, owing to their exceptional biocompatibility, elastic modulus closely matching that of natural bone, and three-dimensional interconnected porous structures that facilitate osseointegration. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the influence of key pore parameters including porosity, pore size, and pore morphology on the mechanical and biological performance of porous titanium alloys with high-porosity. Advanced fabrication technologies, such as powder metallurgy, can effectively and economically regulate properties by varying pore characteristics of porous titanium alloys through process optimization and adding pore-forming agents, etc. Additive manufacturing, on the other hand, enables precise control over pore characteristics, providing a viable pathway for the customized design of performance matching to human bone. Furthermore, the current technical challenges in the development and application of highly porous titanium alloys are analyzed, and future research directions are proposed to advance performance optimization and their clinical applications.

Key words: Biomedical porous titanium alloys, Pore structure, Powder metallurgy, Additive manufacturing

Yuhua Li, Qiming Bai, Shuailong Dong, Hongming Zhang, Qian Zhang, Qingyu Li, Chengliang Yang. Research progress of high-porosity biomedical porous titanium alloys[J]. Metals Advances, 2026, 41: 16-28.

Figures/Tables 12

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of process of optimizing unit cells for porous scaffolds. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [27]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (b) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of porous titanium with various porosities and pore sizes. Reproduced from Ref. [28] under terms of the CC-BY license.

Fig. 2. (a) ALP staining and (b) Alizarin Red S staining of rBMSCs cultured for 14 days on different scaffold types; (c) ALP activity levels and (d) quantitative mineralization analysis measured at 7 and 14 days. All data represent mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Statistical significance: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 versus Ti group; %p < 0.05, %%p < 0.01 versus p40; &p < 0.05, &&p < 0.01 versus p70; ##p < 0.01 versus p90; Δp < 0.05 versus D400. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [34]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Fig. 3. Histological assessment of porous titanium scaffolds by Van-Gieson staining after implantation for 2 and 4 weeks (The scaffolds are black, and new bone is in red staining). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [34]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Table 1. Mechanical properties of porous titanium and titanium alloys with different pore structure parameters.

Samples	Porosity (%)	Pore size (μm)	Pore shape	Elastic modulus (GPa)	Strength (MPa)	Ref.
Ti	66.1-72.5	325.7-836.4	Cubic	2.8-3.5	31-47.4 (Compressive strength)	[34]
Ti-6Al-4V	16.3-54.8	200-600	Trabecular	3.8-10.4	251.8-775.9 (Yield strength)	[42]
Ti-6Al-4V	12-51	138-596	Schwartz primitive	22.3-58	160-520 (Yield strength)	[46]
Ti-6Al-4V	70.8-90.2	-	Cubic	2.3-9.5	23.9-154.1 (Compressive strength)	[47]
Ti-6Al-4V	43.5-74.7	322-782	Cubic	6.8-10.1	335-523 (Yield strength) 494-794 (Compressive strength)	[48]
Ti	67.0-84.0 62.9-77.0	500-1000	Tetrahedral Octahedral	1.3-4.7 2.6-5.5	31.8-135.6 (Yield Strength) 81.2-228.4 (Yield Strength)	[49]

Fig. 4. Pore images of the porous TiNbZrTaFe samples and their binarized counterparts: (a, b) S30, (c, d) S40, and (e, f) S50. Reproduced from Ref. [73] under terms of the CC-BY license.

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of different preparation methods for porous titanium alloys.

Preparation method	Advantages	Disadvantages	Ref.
Powder metallurgy	·• This straightforward and economical method is well-suited for mass production. ·• By adjusting the content and size of the pore-forming agent, the pore size and porosity can be controlled. ·• Flexible composition facilitates the alloying and compounding of multiple elements.	·• Pore shapes are irregular, and connectivity is difficult to precisely control, with most structures being semi-open. ·• Prone to introducing impurities (such as C, O). ·• Mechanical properties are relatively poor, with insufficient strength at high-porosity.	[74]
Slurry forming	·• Materials with high-porosity can be prepared. ·• Capable of producing isotropic foam structures. ·• Compared to some additive manufacturing technologies, it offers certain cost advantages.	·• Controlling pore size and distribution uniformity is challenging, making it prone to large pores and defects. ·• Poor process stability and low product yield. ·• The pore structure is unfavorable for bone organization in-growth.	[75]
Additive manufacturing	·• It can precisely control the macro-morphology, size, distribution, and connectivity of pores, enabling customized solutions. ·• Can manufacture complex biomimetic structures (such as TPMS) that cannot be achieved using traditional methods. ·• Excellent mechanical properties, with products exhibiting high strength.	·• High cost of equipment and raw Materials ·• Manufacturing efficiency is relatively low, especially for large-sized components. ·• The presence of step effects and residual stresses on the product surface may necessitate subsequent processing.	[76]
Chemical method	·• Low cost. ·• Capable of operating at relatively low temperatures. ·• Offers advantages in preparing fine pores.	·• Poor reaction controllability. ·• The fabricated porous titanium alloys exhibit inadequate mechanical performance.	[76]

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of different preparation methods for porous titanium alloys.

Preparation method	Advantages	Disadvantages	Ref.
Powder metallurgy	·• This straightforward and economical method is well-suited for mass production. ·• By adjusting the content and size of the pore-forming agent, the pore size and porosity can be controlled. ·• Flexible composition facilitates the alloying and compounding of multiple elements.	·• Pore shapes are irregular, and connectivity is difficult to precisely control, with most structures being semi-open. ·• Prone to introducing impurities (such as C, O). ·• Mechanical properties are relatively poor, with insufficient strength at high-porosity.	[74]
Slurry forming	·• Materials with high-porosity can be prepared. ·• Capable of producing isotropic foam structures. ·• Compared to some additive manufacturing technologies, it offers certain cost advantages.	·• Controlling pore size and distribution uniformity is challenging, making it prone to large pores and defects. ·• Poor process stability and low product yield. ·• The pore structure is unfavorable for bone organization in-growth.	[75]
Additive manufacturing	·• It can precisely control the macro-morphology, size, distribution, and connectivity of pores, enabling customized solutions. ·• Can manufacture complex biomimetic structures (such as TPMS) that cannot be achieved using traditional methods. ·• Excellent mechanical properties, with products exhibiting high strength.	·• High cost of equipment and raw Materials ·• Manufacturing efficiency is relatively low, especially for large-sized components. ·• The presence of step effects and residual stresses on the product surface may necessitate subsequent processing.	[76]
Chemical method	·• Low cost. ·• Capable of operating at relatively low temperatures. ·• Offers advantages in preparing fine pores.	·• Poor reaction controllability. ·• The fabricated porous titanium alloys exhibit inadequate mechanical performance.	[76]

Fig. 5. (a) MIM specimen unsintered; (b) MIM specimen sintered at 1200 °C for 3 h without plasma treatment; (c) MIM specimen subjected to plasma treatment (15 min, 294 W) and sintered at 1200 °C for 3 h; Cross-sections and corresponding porous microstructures of MIM samples sintered at 1200 °C for 3 h without plasma treatment (d) and plasma-treated (15 min, 294 W) (e). Reproduced with permission from Ref. [78]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

Table 3. Mechanical properties of porous titanium and titanium alloys prepared by powder metallurgy.

Samples	Porosity (%)	Pore size (μm)	Elastic modulus (GPa)	Strength (MPa)	Ref.
Ti	36-63	100-450	2.7-18	94.1-468.6 (Compressive strength)	[83]
Ti-6Al-4V	42.8-68.5	-	-	12.7-124.7 (Tensile strength)	[84]
Ti-6Al-4V	44.7-70.0	∼200	9.5-33.0	43.0-110.2 (Yield strength)	[85]
Ti	65-80	∼250	8.0-15.7	12.6-30.8 (Yield strength)	[86]
Ti-7Zr-6Sn-3Mo	65-85	100-700	0.06-0.95	2-27 (Compressive strength)	[87]

Table 4. Mechanical properties of porous titanium and titanium alloys produced by additive manufacturing.

Samples	Porosity (%)	Pore size (μm)	Elastic modulus (GPa)	Strength (MPa)	Ref.
Ti-6Al-4V	43-71	559-749	7.8-55.8	62-565 (Yield strength)	[92]
Ti	35.2-80.7	628.5-634.9	1.0-12.9	10.9-184.8 (Compressive strength)	[34]
Ti-6Al-4V	49.8-70.3	765-1960	0.6-2.9	7.3-163.0 (Compressive strength)	[93]
Ti-6Al-4V	33.8-61.3	315-574	1.7-3.7	33.1-115.2 (Compressive strength)	[94]

Fig. 7. Porous scaffolds facilitated innervated bone regeneration in vivo. (a) Micro-CT images of 2D and 3D reconstructions displaying the newly formed bone surrounding the defects. Representative (b) Masson and (c) H&E staining images of bone repair around the treated defects with various scaffolds (S: scaffold; NB: newly formed bone tissue; red arrows: newly formed immature woven bone). (d) Neo-vascularization and innervation identified through double-labeled immunofluorescent staining of CD31 (red) and β3-tubulin (green) within the newly developed bone tissue. Measurement of the (e) BV/TV and (f) BMD values for quantitative analysis of the regenerated bone tissues. Measurement of the relative (g) blood vessel area and (h) nerve area for quantitative analysis of the newly formed blood vessels and nerve fibers. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [99]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Fig. 8. (a) Porous Ti-6Al-4V jaw scaffold. Reproduced from Ref. [100] under terms of the CC-BY license. (b) Cranial repair Ti-6Al-4V implant with rhombic dodecahedron structure. Reproduced from Ref. [104]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (c) Porous titanium alloy devices surgically placed in rabbit subjects. Reproduced from Ref. [105] under terms of the CC-BY license. (d) Implementation of additive manufacturing in bone repair and replacement. Reproduced from Ref. [106] under terms of the CC-BY license.

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