Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the pre-deformation process

Fig. 2 Schematic illustration of the hydrogen evolution method

Fig. 3 Age-hardening curves of the solid solution treatment sample and pre-deformed sample

Fig. 4 Three-dimensional inverse pole figure maps and pole figures by XRD: a, b STA, c, d PDA

Fig. 5 a Inverse pole figure map, b boundary misorientation map, c (0002) pole figure of a selected grain in the PDA sample; d schematic diagram of the {10$\overline{1}$2}–{10$\overline{1}$2} secondary twin

Fig. 6 STEM images showing the distribution and morphology of the precipitates: a STA sample, b PDA sample; c high-magnification view of the selected region denoted by the orange rectangles in b; d indexing of the selected-area diffraction pattern of the deformation twin in c

Fig. 7 Stress-strain curves under tension and compression: a ND, b RD, c TD (C and T represent compression and tension, respectively)

Fig. 8 Hydrogen evolution as a function of immersion time in Hank’s solution

Fig. 9 SEM micrographs of the plane RD-TD of the STA samples after immersion in Hank’s solution for: a, d, e 6 h, b, f 24 h, c, g 72 h; PDA sample for h, k, l 6 h, i, m 24 h, j, n 72 h. d, e are the high-magnification views of the selected regions shown by the red rectangle and yellow rectangle in a, k, l are the high-magnification images of the selected regions denoted by the red rectangle and yellow rectangle in h

Fig.10 SEM micrographs of the plane ND-TD of the STA samples after immersion in Hank’s solution for: a, d, e 6 h, b and f 24 h, and c and g 72 h; PDA samples for h, k and l 6 h, i, m 24 h, j and n 72 h. d, e are the high-magnification images of the selected regions shown by the red rectangle and yellow rectangle in a, k and l are the high-magnification views of the selected regions denoted by the red rectangle and yellow rectangle in h

Fig. 11 SEM micrographs of the plane ND-RD of the STA samples after exposure to Hank’s solution for: a, d, e 6 h, b, f 24 h, c, g 72 h; PDA samples for h, k, l 6 h, i, m 24 h, j, n 72 h. d, e are the high-magnification images of the selected regions shown by the red rectangle and yellow rectangle in a, k, l are the high-magnification views of the selected regions denoted by the red rectangle and yellow rectangle in h

Fig. 12 OCP variations as a function of immersion time in Hank’s solution up to 72 h

Fig. 13 Potentiodynamic polarization curves of the STA and PDA samples in Hank’s solution

Fig. 14 Nyquist plots of the STA and PDA samples after immersion in Hank’s solution: a 5 min, b 24 h, c 72 h

Fig. 15 EIS models of the STA and PDA samples after immersion in Hank’s solution: a 5 min, b 24 h and 72 h

Fig. 16 Microstructure and crystallographic orientation evolution a before and b after 3% compression along the RD of the PDA samples, c, d crystallographic orientations of the selected grains in a, b

Fig. 17 Microstructure and crystallographic orientation evolution a before and b after 3% compression along the ND of the PDA samples, c, d crystallographic orientations of the selected grains in a, b